Jacob Kounin believed "management
is a complicated technology consisting of specific techniques applied at
appropriate times and in the appropriate manner so as to provide learning
experiences that are nonsatiating." He felt the following teacher traits:
friendliness, helpfulness, rapport, warmth, patience, etc. were not valuable
in managing a classroom. (Charles) Kounin observed teachers on how they
ran an orderly classroom where students focus on learning. With some learned
techniques, teachers could be effective in keeping the whole class involved
with successful learning experiences while preventing discipline problems.
Kounin's model focuses on the following
four learned techniques:
-
Withitness
-
Overlapping
-
Movement Management
-
Group Focus
Withitness gives the students the impression
the teacher knows what is going on everywhere in the classroom at all times.
You must be able to see the whole class no matter where you are in the
classroom. Withitness can improve with practice. For example, learning
to scan the class and moving through the classroom help to keep you aware
what is going on in the classroom. Withitness is increased when the teacher
can properly select the correct student for correction and handle the more
serious incidence first. This is difficult for a novice teacher.
Timing is also important so misbehavior does not spread to the rest of
the class. Early intervention and quickly dealing with the misbehavior
are significant to the timing. Withitness may not come easy to some teachers.
You must be always be alert to what is going on around you. This becomes
easier the longer you are in the classroom. You can even reach the point
where you can anticipate problems before they occur.
Every morning in my classroom, we
do guided reading. I work with a small group of four to five students at
a table in the back of my classroom. I position myself facing the front
of the classroom so I can monitor what the rest of the students are doing
while I work with a small group. The other students are at literacy stations
during this time. I listen and watch them to ensure they are on task at
all times. Since one of the stations is doing reading/phonics learning
programs on the computer, I use the LTV to project the computer screen
image onto the television which I can see where I am sitting. This allows
me to make sure the computer station is being utilized appropriately. Students
stay on task much more than they did before utilizing the LTV because they
know I am watching what they do on the computer. If students are misbehaving
at stations, I enforce consequences in a fair manner according to our discipline
plan.
Overlapping is closely connected
with withitness and keeps more than one activity going without interfering
with the flow of the lesson. A teacher can offer feedback or a word of
encouragement to one student while continuing to work with a group. Another
example is when a teacher is explaining a concept to the class and a student
is becoming disruptive, he/she can move towards the student, while continuing
to teach. It is important for a teacher to have the ability to overlap
because of the number of interruptions and decisions a teacher must make
each day. "According to Pollard and Triggs it has been calculated that
over a thousand interpersonal exchanges a day typically take place between
each teach and the pupils in their care." (Preventive Management) Teachers
must learn to constantly scan the classroom. It is easy to get involved
with a group and ignore what is going in the rest of the classroom, but
it is absolutely crucial to know what is going on at all times. This can
be overwhelming when first beginning teaching, but as with withitness,
it becomes easier.
While working with a guided reading
group, there are several interruptions from other students. Even though
they know they are not supposed to interrupt, several occurrences always
surface from a cassette tape stuck in the headphones or a frozen computer
screen. I deal with these incidents while keeping the group on task. The
same happens with a behavior issue. I address the issue with the student(s)
at their stations from a distance and supervise the student(s) from the
back of the room at the table. I used to get out of my seat to to assist
students or deal with behavior problems, but found it is better to stay
with my group so they can continue with their activity.
Movement management maintains a steady
progress or movement throughout a lesson, class or day (momentum). It also
avoids abrupt changes with good transitions (smoothness). Gaining the students'
attention giving clear directions, focusing on key points, and having students
move quickly to the next task help to minimize misbehavior. Kounin observed
that smooth and effective transitions are one of the most important techniques
in maintaining student involvement and control. (PE Central) This is difficult
to do as a beginning teacher. Trial and error seems to work well. You can
definitely distinguish between smooth and not so smooth transitions.
During guided reading, students rotate
through various literacy stations. Each station continues for approximately
fifteen minutes. When it is time to rotate, a timer sounds so students
know to quickly pick up, check the board for their next station and move
to the new station immediately. We practiced this for several days at the
beginning of the school year. They know exactly what to do upon hearing
the timer. Fifteen minutes at each stations generally gives the students
time to finish the task without any idle time. The rotation gives them
a variety of different tasks, some at their desks and others away from
their desks, to keep them interested. Originally, I had students at stations
for twenty minutes but realized it was too long for them. I adjusted the
length of time to better meet my students' needs. So, by using trial and
error, teachers can see what works best with their particular set of students.
Group focus is the ability to keep
the whole class alert, active and involved in an instructional activity
and is essential in keeping an efficient classroom and reducing misbehavior.
Alerting and accountability are essential to group focus and take practice.
Accountability means holding each student responsible for actively being
involved in learning the facts and/or concepts being taught. When students
know they will be held accountable for their learning and behavior, they
are more likely to behave. The teacher needs to find a way to see how individual
students are progressing/responding. This can be done with progress reports,
checklists, rubrics, etc. Alerting is focusing the attention of the group.
You need to, first, attain the students' attention and, second, let the
students know what you want them to do. Keeping the attention of all students
is next to impossible. Teachers may need to vary their approach until they
find on that works best with the whole class.
An example of accountability in my
classroom is when I have students write on slates during Math. I can give
my students a math problem, have them write their answer on their slate
and hold it up for me to see if their response is correct. I am able to
quickly assess to see which students are proficient and which need additional
practice. Each student was made accountable for solving the problem. They
really pay attention and are involved in the activity. I used alerting
with my class during math today. I "drew" some items on the chalkboard
and gave each item a price tag of either 5 cents, 10 cents, or 15 cents.
I then said, "You have to spend 25 cents. Hmm... I wonder who can buy the
fewest items for 25 cents? Who can buy the most?" They were all immediately
involved in trying to be the first one to raise their hand and answer one
of my questions.
Kounin is correct in saying teacher
discipline skills are learned. Teachers need to actually be in the classroom
and see what works effectively and what does not. Practicing watching and
getting to know your students helps to learn some of the skills. The longer
you are in the classroom, the more comfortable you become with the techniques
of withitness, overlapping, movement management, and group focus.
References:
Personal:
Ridgely Elementary School, 1994-2001.
Books:
C.M. Charles, Building Classroom
Discipline, pp. 35-41.
McGinnis, Ellen and Arnold P. Goldstein,
Skillstreaming
the Elementary School Child, 1997, pp. 29, 171, 180.
Websites:
Preventive
Management, Department of Education and Professional Studies, University
of Limerick, 1999-2000.
Wuest, Deb. Are
You With It?, Learning Environment Article, PE Central, April 1999.
Maintaining
Effective Management from Educations Psychology, 4th Edition.
Back to the Top
The word "mnemonics" comes
from "the Greek mnem (memory) and mnemon (mindful), and the
Greek goddess of Memory...was Mnemosyne". (Mnemonics
Guide) Mnemonics are methods or devices used for remembering information
that is difficult to recall. Since our working memory is limited, we cannot
learn new information without "bumping" something out. One way to expand
the capacity of our working memory is with mnemonics.
Utilizing mnemonics assists in "jogging"
our memories. People recall new information better when it can be related
to information that is already know. The mnemonic aid "provides a cueing
structure to trigger recall" in the form of words, rhymes or visual images.
(Project
BETTER) The purpose of mnemonics is to increase recall which
it has successfully done for numerous people. While discussing the use
of mnemonics at school recently, every teacher remembered several from
when they were students. The mnemonics ranged from ROY G BIV (which everyone
knew) to less known ones for map directions (Never Eat Slimy
Worms
- North East South West). Everyone felt they were useful in remembering
lists in a correct sequence.
There are several mnemonics I use
with my first graders. First, they have a difficult time remembering the
difference between 'want' and 'went' since the former cannot be sounded
out. Since most six and seven year olds like bugs, I teach them "I want
an ant." since the word 'ant' is in 'want'. The students who had difficulty
remembering the difference were able to make the connection. Another mnemonic
I use with them is that 'there' has 'here' in it - both are places, and
there is an 'I' in 'their' because it is talking about people. That helps
them in knowing how to spell 'there' versus 'their'. Another spelling word
I help them with is one that works for me. Break 'tomorrow' down into three
words 'tom' 'or' 'row'. I still say it as three words when spelling it.
Some sayings I teach them are "'i' before 'e' except after 'c' or when
it says 'a' as in 'neighbor' and 'weigh'" and "When two vowels go walking,
the first one does the talking." Both work really well when they are trying
to sound out or spell a word. Our English language is complicated especially
for beginning learners. If I can make it a little easier with a rhyme or
a silly phrase, I will do it.
While in school, I used mnemonics
a lot for remembering lists of information. I made up a lot of my own by
taking the first letter of every word in the list and either remembering
the word it created from all the beginning letters or making up a sentence
with new words that started with the same letter as each of the words in
my list. The mnemonics I remember the most, however, are the ones I was
taught by somebody else.
-
I took piano lessons so of course I
remember Every Good Boy Does Fine which
represents the lines on the treble clef (E, G, B, D, and F). Along with
that one is FACE which are the spaces on the treble clef. The lines
on the bass clef are represented by Good Boys Do Fine
Always
(G, B, D, F, and A). Finally, the spaces on the bass clef are triggered
by remembering All Cows Eat Grass (A, C, E,
and G).
-
If you add the ten's and one's place
when multiplying by 9, you get the sum 9. For example, 9x2=18 and 1+8=9,
9x3=27 and 2+7=9, etc.
-
The order of the planets in the solar
system is "My very excellent mother just served us nine pizzas." - Mercury,
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto.
-
The spelling of dessert compared to
desert - dessert has double 's' because you want a double helping of dessert.
I remember many more, but these were
the ones that stuck out most in my mind. Obviously, mnemonics are helpful
in remembering certain types of information. I agree with Bruning, et al
when they state "...teachers should provide instruction in mnemonics as
a strategy for learning lists of unrelated terms or concepts. Students
should be encouraged to use other methods, however, when learning complex
materials." Information that needs memorizing lends itself to using mnemonics;
however, more complicated information requires different methods of learning.
References:
Books:
Bruning, Roger H., Gregory J. Schraw,
and Royce R. Ronning, Cognitive Psychology and Instruction.
Websites:
Manktelow, James, Mind
Tools - Memory Techniques, Mind Tools, Inc., 1995-96.
Mirick, Susie, Improving
Your Memory Skills (Mnemonics). College of William and Mary.
Mnemonics
Guide - A Brief Introduction. EUdesign, 2000.
Parker, Janet, Research
in Action - Mnemonics. Drake University, 2000.
Project BETTER/Thinking and Learning,
General
Mnemonics. School Improvement in Maryland.
Back to the Top
Lesson
8 - Question 2
Phonics and Whole
Language
Do you think the phonics vs.
whole language debate in the learning to read process, is relevant when
thinking about students reading
from the computer screen?
The phonics vs. whole language debate is ongoing. Is it better for
students to break down words into sounds or to decode words through context?
Based on my experience of teaching first grade, reading various articles
and books debating both sides, and attending workshops and inservices on
the issue, a combination of the two approaches works best. It is essential
for young children to understand how words work, yet it is just as important
for them to read for meaning. My students come from such vastly different
backgrounds, it is next to impossible for many to rely on relating literature
to their own lives and cultures. With a school population of more than
90% low income, some of our students come to school with little or no reading
knowledge and life experiences that do not give them the ability to decode
words through context.
The computer can be useful in reinforcing isolated phonics skills. I
have found this beneficial during literacy stations. The stations are only
fifteen minutes so the software I use for them are more of a drill and
practice. The students are engaged and it reinforces what they have learned
in guided reading groups. There are other ways to teach phonics. According
to Melinda Beckwith, Language Arts Support Liaison for Springfield School
District, "...kinesthetic magnetic letters and manipulating letter
and word cards...some kids need. The computer screen doesn't provide this
avenue." She goes on to say, which I agree wholeheartedly with, "...the
computer is interactive, but there's nothing like the interaction between
two humans for motivation and assessment purposes."
Ms. Beckwith also made reference to programs like Breakthrough and Waterford.
These programs not only provide isolated skill work but also connect reading
on the screen to the phonics skills. I am not familiar with either. I do
know from speaking with Becky Trieger (CTER2) that Ball Charter in Springfield
uses The Waterford Program. Chatham Elementary School also uses it. I would
like to observe the program as well as see research data about the program's
short- and long-term effects.
Teachers need to assist students in connecting the phonics skills into
meaningful context. Bruning et al states "If children are unable to connect
the skills they are learning with the larger context of becoming literate,
they can come to view reading as an incomprehensible set of fragmented
tasks." "For most children, a skilled teacher's assistance is essential
in learning to read. Becoming literate depends on the children's ability
to link written symbols with their spoken language and draws heavily on
their linguistic and world knowledge." (Bruning) Even though the
computer can be interactive, only a teacher can observe the behaviors of
early readers. Teachers can anticipate and respond to students' needs.
We pick the right books, teach the appropriate lesson, and "give the right
prompt before, during, and after reading." (Beckwith)
Based on research studies, computer instruction is effective for a wide
variety of reading skill and concept areas. The primary focus should be
on whether or not teachers are using computers for significant reading
and writing instruction. "Guidelines for Computer-Assisted Reading Instruction"
gives guidelines to use as a checklist to help teachers match their use
of computers with what is known about the reading/writing process. The
five guidelines are as follows:
1. Computer instruction in reading should focus on meaning and stress
reading comprehension. Learners should have the opportunities to
-
work with whole, meaningful texts
-
work with word-recognition programs that stress the use of word meanings
in conjunction with phonics and structural analysis
-
apply the skills being taught in some meaningful way
-
work with computer materials that use content and language that are within
the range of their conceptual development.
2. Computer instruction in reading should foster active involvement
and stimulate thinking. Learners should have the opportunities to
-
discuss the purpose of the computer task/program as well as its nature
-
make decisions that control or influence the computer task
-
monitor their own learning
3. Computer instruction in reading should support and extend students'
knowledge of text structures. Learners should have the opportunities to
-
encounter a wide variety of text structures upon which to apply and refine
their comprehension skill
-
experiment with text in creative ways to suit their purposes
4. Computer instruction in reading should make use of content from
a wide range of subject areas. Learners should have opportunities to
-
use the computer as a means of applying reading strategies to all areas
of the curriculum
-
use the computer in conjunction with other modes of instruction
5. Computer instruction in reading should link reading and writing.
Learners should have opportunities to create text with the computer for
sharing and use by others.
Using the guidelines for computers and reading along with informed
teachers, students can acquire needed skills to become successful readers.
If thoughtfully chosen, computer programs can be great supplements for
great teachers who use a combination of phonics and whole language.
References:
Books:
Bruning, Roger H., Gregory J. Schraw,
and Royce R. Ronning, Cognitive Psychology and Instruction.
E-mail Correspondence:
Melinda Beckwith, Language Arts
Support Liaison, Springfield School District #186
Personal:
Ridgely Elementary School, Springfield,
Illinois, 1994-2001.
Websites:
Curtis, Jenny. Phonics
vs. Whole Language: Which is Better?, Knowledge Share LLC, 1997.
Pierce, Margaret. Integrating
Technology into the Teaching of Phonics: Including the Part in a Whole-Language
Program, 28 Takes on 21st Century Literacy Instruction.
Simic, Marjorie R. Guidelines
for Computer-Assisted Reading Instruction, April 2000.
Back to the
Top
Lesson
9 - Question 3
Analysis of Student
Writer
Analyze "the Writing Conference",
the video segment of Ms. Dawn Harris Martine's, second grade teacher from
a Harlem elementary school, who is working with a student on writing.
One of the most important steps of the writing process is student-teacher
conferencing. This allows time for teachers to engage the student in conversation
about his/her writing. Bruning asserts "teacher-student conferences can
be used to create a literacy community that will enhance the quality of
students' writing and their enjoyment of writing activities" (Bruning et
al) The conference permits the student and teacher time alone to discuss
the content, meaning, grammar, etc. to strengthen the quality of the writing.
Praising student efforts and modeling are important aspects of the conference.
An article, "The Writing Process", in the Courier-Journal suggests writers
need feedback at all stages of the writing process. This is true in my
classroom. Some students require feedback when deciding upon a topic. They
are unsure of how to begin their writing, but through conferencing and
talking through it aloud, they have a clearer focus. Others need feedback
during their writing, and all of the first graders need feedback in the
end. The article also states the respondent (teacher) should do the following:
-
question rather than dictate
-
encourage rather than correct
-
coach rather than correct
-
guide rather than direct
-
model rather than rewrite
-
suggest rather than direct
-
critique rather than criticize.
All of these actions allow the student to keep ownership of the writing
and keeps the conference positive. (Courier-Journal)
Watching Ms. Dawn Harris Martine conferencing with Damion, a second
grade student, I observed some very positive and motivating verbal as well
as nonverbal communication. First, her nonverbal communication includes
sitting in close proximity of the child. She is leaning towards him as
he was reading and looks extremely interested and pleased as he is reading.
She also nods in anticipation and with pleasure at the boy. Next, her verbal
communication to the child is also positive as well as motivating. She
recognizes the story is similar to "The Three Little Pigs" and tells him,
"It's OK to write a story like a story you've heard before." She goes on
to tell him that other authors do that, too, and just change the names.
She wants him to feel good about his writing and encourage him to keep
writing since he has not written much in the past. When he begins to refer
to the sheep in his story as pigs, she asks him, "Did you do that because
they kept eating all the food...they were like little piggies?" She didn't
make him feel like he made a mistake by changing from sheep to pigs in
the middle of his story. She does not criticize him but questions and encourages
him. Through the student-teacher conference, Damion receives reassurance
that one of his initial attempts at writing is successful. He feels good
about his experience and will continue to write. (Ms. Dawn Harris Martine
Video Segment)
The video segment is a good example of how a writing conference can
be motivating and rewarding for a student. Ms. Martine did an excellent
job questioning, encouraging and coaching the student during the writing
conference. Since students have varying abilities, teachers can focus on
relevant skills for each student. The conference provided the student an
individualized learning opportunity and the teacher with valuable information.
References:
Books:
Bruning, Roger H., Gregory J. Schraw,
and Royce R. Ronning, Cognitive Psychology and Instruction.
Personal:
Ridgely Elementary School, Springfield,
Illinois, 1994-2001.
Video Clip:
Martine, Dawn Harris, "The Writing
Conference", Harlem Elementary School.
Websites:
Information
for New Writing Teachers
Knezacek, Marlys, Writing
Program for Primary Grades, 1995.
The
Writing Process, The Courier-Journal, 2001.
Back to the Top
Lesson
10 - Question 1
Problem Solving
Solve two of the problems below
and monitor your cognition as you do so. Discuss the strategies that you
used to solve it. In what ways do your strategies compare to those that
students use to solve problems in the content area that you teach? It may
be helpful to think about some of the poor and some of the good problem
solves that you have taught. Be sure to couch your discussion in a language
of psychology.
I enjoy problem solving but am far
from an expert in it. I like the challenge. I want my students to have
more exposure to problem solving so they become more adept at it. My goal
for this school year is to strengthen my students' ability to solve problems
and communicate mathematically.
The first problem I chose to solve
is the following: You wake up in a pitch-black room in a hunting lodge,
and there's no light handy. In your duffel bag there are six black socks
and six white ones, all mixed together. You want to pick out a matching
pair. What is the smallest number of socks you can take out of the bag
and be sure of getting a pair of the same color?
When solving problems, I usually
imagine the scene in my head or draw a picture to represent the problem.
My first thought was I would never be in a hunting lodge unless it was
heated and had running water, and my clothes would never fit in a duffel
bag. I could not relate to having my socks mixed together instead of being
folded with the appropriate match, so I guess my domain knowledge for this
problem is close to nil. I tried to think through the situation logically.
First, I pull out two socks.
Since it is dark, I do not yet know if they match. I need to proceed to
ensure I will have a match once I get into the light. I pull out a third
sock, and it has to be either black or white which may match with one of
the socks I pulled out first; however, if it does not match one of the
socks I pulled out first, then my first two socks were a match. Either
way, after pulling out three socks, I will have a match. The smallest number
of socks you can take out of the bag and be sure of getting a pair of the
same color is three. For example, here are the possibilities of sock color:
3 black, 2 black/1 white, 2 white/1black, 3 white. In each scenario, there
is at least a matching pair of socks. I had to visualize pulling
socks out of a bag to solve the problem.
The next problem I chose is: A secretary
types four letters to four people and addresses the four envelopes. If
she inserts the letters at random, each in a different envelope, what is
the probability that exactly three letters will go into the right envelopes?
I initially tried to solve the problem
as trying to calculate the probability of four combined events. The probability
of the first letter being correct is 25%. The probability of the second
letter being correct is 33%, assuming the first envelope was properly placed.
The probability of the third letter being correctly placed is 50%. However,
if the first three letters are placed correctly, then the fourth letter
has to be correct. That is NOT exactly three letters in the right envelopes.
Upon realizing this, I discovered the probability of exactly three letters
being placed in the right envelopes is 0%. You can never have an exact
amount correct that is one less than the total. For example, if there were
ten envelopes, you could have one to eight correct or ten correct, but
you could never have exactly nine correct.
I broke down the problem and began
trying to solve it by figuring out the probability. It did not occur to
me until the fourth probability that putting exactly three letters into
the correct envelope was impossible. The algorithm in this situation is
that you cannot have an exact amount correct that is one less than the
total. The probability is 0% of exactly x amount happening out of y when
x = y-1.
Many of my students have not had
a lot of experience with problem solving. They are beginning to realize
it is much easier to solve a problem if they draw a picture to represent
the problem first. They also have difficulty identifying the problem. For
example, last Friday, we did the following problem: There are 12 candles
in the box. I have to make 2 birthday cakes. I need 5 candles
for 1 cake and 6 candles for the other. If one box holds 12 candles,
how many boxes do I need? Once they figured out how many candles they needed,
they stopped. I asked them to reread the problem and listen to what it
is asking.
I am taking a district math course
right now. I have learned the following model (for Pre-K - 2) for
problem solving from the Teacher Instructional Leader for Mathematics for
Springfield School District:
First
-
Read the problem with students.
Second
-
Make sure students understand the problem.
-Teacher asks questions.
-Students put problem in own words.
-Students act out the problem.
-What is the question that needs to be answered?
-What information do you know?
Third
-
Students work in pairs/small group to solve the problem.
-Students consider whether this problem is like any other problem that
they have solved.
-Students choose a strategy and materials.
-Students choose how to record and organize information to prove that
their answer is correct. They draw and/or write their solutions.
-Teacher facilitates groups with questioning.
-Students explain in writing (or orally for Pre-K and possibly K) how
they solved the problem.
Fourth
-
Small groups share strategies in whole group setting.
-Student processing of information is key.
-Teacher can tell what students know about concept.
- Students learn from each other.
-Students build math confidence.
This model is similar to the five-stage sequence discussed by Bruning,
et al in the textbook. Since it was constructed for young children, it
is scaled down but has many of the same skills. I have found this model
to be extremely useful when working with first graders. In fact, I used
most of this process when solving the above problems. I read the
problems, found the questions that needed to be answered, chose a strategy,
explained in writing how I solved the problem, and shared my findings with
all of you.
References:
Books:
Bruning, Roger H., Gregory J. Schraw,
and Royce R. Ronning, Cognitive Psychology and Instruction.
Personal:
Math class taught by Carol VanderKloot,
Teacher Instructional Leader for Mathematics, Springfield Public Schools
Ridgely Elementary School, Springfield,
Illinois, 1994-2001.
Websites:
21st Century
Problem Solving
Math Magic
- a K-12 telecommunications project developed in El Paso, Texas by Alan
A. Hodson. It provides strong motivation for students to use computer technology
while increasing problem-solving strategies.
Back to the
Top
Lesson
11 - Question 1
Story Problems
Why are math story problems
so difficult for so many students?
Thinking back
to my experience in math classes in junior high and high school, I clearly
remember the feeling when being presented with a story problem. Even though
I enjoyed math and was fairly good at it, I had great difficulty with story
problems. I could not easily apply my mathematical knowledge to these types
of problems. I did not have strong problem solving strategies. In Chapter
13 of Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, it is noted that
students have difficulty recognizing which procedures to use for a particular
problem. If you do not see a symbol telling you to add, subtract, multiply,
etc., you must understand which mathematical function to use and why.
In the past, the United States has put great emphasis on isolated math
skills. Many students today might have the ability to do a math problem
but most do not comprehend the principle behind the problem. Students are
unable to recognize whether conceptual or procedural information is needed
in a problem. (Bruning, et al) According to "A Perspective on Arithmetic",
"children rely on following recipes rather than reasoning what is sensible
to do. Following recipes results from learning arithmetic as a collection
of specific methods used to arrive at answers." Having learned mathematical
procedures does not guarantee students understand the concepts and can
use them to solve problems.
When I started teaching in Springfield Public Schools seven years ago,
the district used HBJ (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich). It was a traditional
math series that was "practice related to the computational topic of the
chapter." (Li). There were very few story problems, and they did not require
extensive problem solving ability. Starting with the 1995-96 school year,
our school piloted the Everyday Math program. Their website best explains
the balanced concept of the program. "Everyday Mathematics does not teach
topics or strands in isolation. Concepts are interwoven over time and in
a variety of applications. Each lesson incorporates many of the following
content strands : Numeration and Order, Measures and Measurement and Reference
Frames, Operations: Mental Arithmetic and Number Systems, Operations: Algorithms
and Procedures, Exploring Data and Chance, Geometry and Spatial Sense,
Patterns, Functions, and Sequences, and Algebra and Uses of Variables.
The topics were briefly introduced, taught, explored and revisited at a
later time during the school year. Our students were easily frustrated
by the fact they could not master a topic before quickly moving on to a
new one. The program, however, did allow the students to explore and problem
solve, and it related math to their everyday lives. (Everyday
Math)
Beginning with the 2000-01 school year, our district adopted a new math
series, Mimosa, Growing with Mathematics.
The program meets the NCTM (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics)
Standards, integrates content, and involves language-based materials. Through
the use of manipulatives, the program emphasizes the connection between
mathematics and the real world. I also use Everyday Counts which provides
10 to 15 minutes of supplementary math instruction each day using the calendar,
clocks, graphs, counting tape and various other elements to support grade
level math concepts. For the first time since I started teaching,
many of my students understand why 5+2=7 and can visualize 3 groups of
4. When doing open-ended story problems with students in cooperative groups,
I see them using good strategies. For example, last week we were trying
to figure out the following: There are 3 cats and 4 dogs in the bed. A
girl jumped in the bed with her pet spider. How many legs are in the bed?
One of my girls said, "I know how many legs. There were 3 cats. That's
3 groups of 4. 4 dogs are 4 groups of 4. I will add 4+4+4 to 4+4+4+4 and
then add 8+2 more." On another problem, one of my boys commented, "I got
11 candles." When I asked how he got 11, he answered, "Well, I know 6 and
6 is 12. You have to take one away since it's 6 and 5. That's 11." They
are truly beginning to understand story problems.
According to The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM),
centering mathematics instruction around problem solving can help all students
learn key concepts and skills within motivating contexts. School districts
need to think about how their students are being taught math. Drill and
practice does not prepare students to be problem solvers. They need time
to explore, think, question, and do.
NCTM emphasizes the goals of building understanding. Since algorithms
are needed to solve problems, procedural skills in math should not be abandoned.
They should be firmly embedded in the math curriculum, thus introducing,
extending, and reinforcing children's mathematical knowledge. Teachers
should be equipped to assist in the ongoing development of children's innate
problem-solving inclinations and to use a variety of problem-solving strategies.
(VanderKloot).
In summary, gaining problem solving experience through a strong mathematics
curriculum coupled with opportunities for students to explore with manipulatives,
work with cooperative groups, discover various approaches to a problem
and share with classmates provide a well-balanced math approach. It will
encourage students to think and communicate mathematically as well as develop
problem-solving strategies. Without the encouragement and experience of
problem solving, students will continue to have difficulty with story problems.
References:
Articles:
"A Perspective on Arithmetic", pp. 5-11. (article given to me by Carol
VanderKloot, Teacher Instructional Leader of Mathematics for Springfield
Public Schools)
"How Children Learn Mathematics," pp. 24-28. (article given to me by
Carol VanderKloot)
Books:
Bruning, Roger H., Gregory J. Schraw,
and Royce R. Ronning, Cognitive Psychology and Instruction.
Personal:
K-2 Standards-Based Math Course
- Level I, Class taught by Carol VanderKloot, 2001.
Ridgely Elementary School, Springfield,
Illinois, 1994-2001.
Websites:
Everyday
Math, Everyday Learning Corporation, 2000.
Li, Jianhua, An
Analysis of the Story Problems in the Everyday Mathematics K-2,
Department of Education, University of Chicago, June 1996.
Lubienski, Sarah Theule. Problem
Solving as a Means Toward Mathematics for All: An Exploratory Look Through
a Class Lens, JRME Online, 2001.
McCallister, Howard C., 21st
Century Problem Solving, 1994.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Problem
Solving Standard for Grades Pre-K–2, 2000.
NCTM
Standards
Ortsey, Craig. Practical
Issues Related to Academic Support in Math, January 1999.
Back to the Top
Lesson
11 - Question 4
Cognitivist and Behaviorist
Teachers
Compare ways that a teacher
with a behaviorist leaning and one with a cognitive leaning view errors
that students make during learning and testing. Make your discussion
relevant to psychological theory and your content area.
As a behaviorist, you believe that learning takes place when knowledge
is separated into smaller bits. Students are rewarded for successful answers.
Instruction focuses on conditioning the learner's behavior. Learning involves
repetition and association and is highly mechanical. Behaviorist leaning
teachers focus on a new behavioral pattern being repeated until it becomes
automatic. (Schuman)
The role of the behaviorist teacher is providing stimulus material and
prompting the correct response, while the learner's role is to be the receiver
of the information response until the behavioral change is permanent. (Applications
of Learning Theories) Teachers with a behaviorist leaning view errors as
not enough conditioning. Without repetition and proper conditioning,
students will make mistakes.
As a cognitivist, you believe that learning is a change in individuals'
mental structures enabling them to show changes in behavior. It is based
on the thought process behind the behavior. Your focus is on what is in
the learner's head coupled with the behavior.
According to "Applications of Learning Theories for Instructional Design
Practice", from the cognitivist's perspective, you emphasize the following
principles:
-
Internal processes/conditions of learning (the learning processes that
take place in the learner's mind)
-
Attention
-
Expectancies
-
Reception
-
Perception
-
Short-term memory
-
Rehearsing
-
Encoding
-
Long-term memory
-
Memory strategies
-
Encoding strategies
-
Executive control
-
Prior knowledge and experience
-
External processes/conditions of learning (the environmental support for
the internal processes of learning)
-
Attracting student attention
-
Setting expectation
-
Assisting learners to recall prior knowledge and experiences
-
Identifying types of learning outcome (memorization, conceptualization,
application, problem solving, etc.)
-
Facilitating and support cognitive processes for learning of the identified
types of learning outcomes
-
Assisting learners to develop learning strategies
-
Helping learners to control their own leraning processes (metacognition)
-
Assisting learners to perform self assessment
-
Assessing learners' performance and provide informative feedback
The role of the cognitivist teacher is to assist the learner's application
of the proper learning strategies, and the learner is active in the learning
process. Cognitive leaning teachers view errors as unsuccessful attempts
to understand, order and act upon their environment in ways that make sense
to them. Knowledge is the organization of a set of mental structures and
problem-solving processes that the learner manipulates and restructures
in response to new information and experience. (Gordon)
I possess some qualities of both a behaviorist and cognitivist teacher.
Some concepts in first grade need to be memorized and practiced. For example,
when reading, students should see a high frequency word and recognize it
without having to sound it out. Words like have, were, my, was, some,
etc.
are used often in first grade text and cannot be sounded out. Students
who come to first grade without much reading practice need to learn basic
sight words before they can become fluent readers. Playing sight word games
and continuing to read will help them learn these words.
In my classroom, I often act as a guide for my students. In mathematics,
being proficient requires being able to use prior knowledge from one situation
and to apply it in another. In open-ended story problems, students must
have the ability to know which math function (addition, subtraction, etc.)
to use and how to apply a strategy to solve the problem. I often facilitate
and support the internal processes of the various learners in my classroom.
In science, my young students come to school with some prior knowledge
that is often incorrect. It is my job to acknowledge the misconceptions
and design tasks that reformualte knowledge. These tasks should include
hands-on activities and time for sharing the outcomes with classmates.
Both the behaviorist and cognitivist offer important aspects to learning.
When deciding which strategies to utilize, it is crucial to consider the
level of knowledge of the learners and the cognitive processing demands.
The nature of the learning task and proficiency level of the learners should
both be considered when incorporating strategies.
References:
Books:
Bruning, Roger H., Gregory J. Schraw,
and Royce R. Ronning. Cognitive Psychology and Instruction.
Charles, C.M. Building Classroom
Discipline.
Personal:
Ridgely Elementary School, Springfield,
Illinois, 1994-2001.
Websites:
Anderson, John R., Lynne M. Reder,
Herbert A. Simon. Applications
and Misapplicatons of Cognitive Psychology to Mathematics Education,
Department of Psychology, Carnegie Mellon University.
Applications
of Learing Theories for Instructional Design Practice
Gordon, Edward E. Cognitive
Learning Makes Training More Powerful, 1994.
Roschelle, Jeremey. Learning
in Interactive Environments: Prior Knowledge and New Experience,
University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth, 1997.
Schuman, Lisa. Perspectives
on Insruction, 1996.
Back to the Top
Lesson
13 - Question 2
Glasser - Accepting
Responsibility
One of the features of
Glassers strategy is:...getting the student to accept responsibility...What
does that mean and where does it fit in with his larger scheme.
Education for social responsibility
should be a part of every school program.
-William Glasser
Glasser defines responsibility as
"the ability to fulfill one's needs and to do so in a way that does not
deprive others of the ability to fulfill their needs." Responsibility
is the primary concept in Glasser's Reality Theory. Reality therapy
is the process of teaching an irresponsible individual to deal with existing
reality and to function responsibly. In turn, this will fulfill personal
needs (belonging, power, fun, and freedom).
Some of my students begin the school
year by not trusting me because they are not used to trusting adults. They
might come from homes where adults do not enforce rules or care about fulfilling
their children's personal needs. It is my top priority to gain their trust
so they will respect me and my classroom management plan. Glasser states
teachers must be persistent in assisting students make better behavior
choices. Until the students become emotionally attached to people (teachers),
they cannot regularly make these kinds of behavior choices. (Charles) Glasser's
earlier view (1978) was that teachers should do the following:
-
Stress student responsibility in making
good choices (you live with the choices you make).
-
Establish class rules that lead to success.
-
Accept no excuses.
-
Call for value judgments.
-
Suggest suitable alternatives to inappropriate
behavior.
-
Invoke reasonable consequences following
student behavior.
-
Be persistent.
-
Continually review the discipline system.
Students should take responsibility
for their own behavior and be held accountable for it. Since learning to
be responsible is not a natural process, individuals need to be taught
to be responsible from loving and disciplining parents and/or significant
others (teachers). In order for the latter to occur, teachers need to be
more of a lead manager than a boss manager. In other words, teachers should
try the following:
-
Lead instead of drive students.
-
Depend on cooperation instead of authority.
-
Think "we" instead of "I"/"they".
-
Instill confidence instead of fear.
-
Fix problems not blame.
-
Accept high quality work instead of
poor/mediocre work.
-
Is concerned about needs of students
instead of only curriculum.
-
Set friendly atmosphere instead of adversarial
atmoshere.
-
Constantly search for better ways to
do things instead of use coercion.
-
Is courteous, clam and consistent instead
of abrupt and impersonal with people.
-
Show interest in personal lives of others
instead of not wanting to get involved. (Glasser - The Quality School:Managing
Students without Coercion)
Even though Glasser's earlier work portrayed
the school "in a very positive light", his more recent stance is that we
must find a "way to improve instruction". He believes we need to not only
stimulate students to work but also to provide them encouragement and assistance
to help them meet their needs. (Charles) In 1995, Glasser became an advocate
for schools to abandon the teaching of facts which might not necessarily
be relevant to the students' future. Instead, we should teach them more
useful things such as verbal written expression, listening to others, reading
and mathematical problem solving.
Glasser is correct in saying schools
need to create opportunities for students to participate in rule setting
and to accept responsibility. However, schools cannot do this along. We
need the support of the parents and the community - it should be a joint
venture.
References:
Article:
"Managing Schools and Classrooms", Adapted by Robert Wubbolding from
The
Quality School "Managing Students without Coercion by William Glasser,
1990.
Books:
Charles, C.M. Building Classroom
Discipline.
McGinnis, Ellen and Arnold P. Goldstein,
Skillstreaming
the Elementary School Child, 1997.
Shea, Thomas M. and James E. Walker.
Behavior
Management - A Practical Approach for Educators, 1988.
Personal:
Ridgely Elementary School, Springfield,
Illinois, 1994-2001.
Websites:
Ellis
and Glasser
JC Disciples Review, Reality
Therapy, 1996.
Back to the Top
Lesson
14 - Question 3
Gang Scene
Locate information on the internet
and from your school district that describes the gang scene in your school,
school district, community or city. Determine the names, symbols, garments,
gang structure, effect on your school, and/or effect on you. How do you
plan to interact with gang 'wannabees' or members in your school, classroom
or laboratory?
Since Springfield is the layover
between Chicago and St. Louis, our community has a wide array of gang involvement.
I was aware of the fact that Springfield had a high number of gang members
but was shocked to discover the actual number of gang members in Springfield
schools is 800 (Barlow). As Sara Barnett stated, Bodinger-deUriarte reported
that gang participation rarely exceeds ten percent even in highly impacted
areas. After discovering these statistics, I was intrigued to research
more about gangs in our area.
I spoke with Brian Graves, Gang Officer,
from the Springfield Police Department who provided me with an abundance
of gang information. Many of the gangs in Springfield originated in Chicago
with the Gangster Disciples led by Larry Hoover. Throughout the 1970's,
the Black P-Stone Nation and Black Gangster Disciple Nation controlled
the Chicago drug trade and became harsh rivals. When the leaders and members
of the Chicago gangs ended up in prison, there was an increase in the number
of individual gangs which created the need for immediate visual gang identification
so various gangs could be distinguished among prison population.
While in prison in the 1980's, gangs
started dividing into alliances, People Nation and Folk Nation. All gangs
originating from the Black P-Stone Nation aligned with People Nation while
those originating from the Black Gangster Disciples aligned with the Folk
Nation.
Many gangs are associated with one
of the two Chicago alliances with the more predominant ones shown below.
(Street Gangs - Chicago Based or Influenced)
People Nation Sets
*Black P-Stone
*Bishops
*Latin Kings
*Gaylords
*Vicelords
*Latin Counts
*Spanish Lords
*Kents
*El Rukns
Folk Nation Sets
*Black Gangster Disciples
*Latin Disciples
*Black Disciples
*Maniac Latin Disciples
*Gangster Disciples
*Simon City Royals
*La Raza
*Spanish Gangsters
*Cobras
*Two Sixers
*Eagles
All the gangs have the philosophy
"All for One, One for All" and insist on assaultive behavior by all members.
The rules of conduct must be strictly followed. Some of the rules include
the following, "Folk before family." and "I will not let my brother
fall to a knee.". Violations for not following the rules are written out
and signed and may include beatings or death.
According to Mr. Graves, the prevalent
gangs in Springfield include the following:
-
Disciples
-
Vice Lords
-
New Breed Gang Drugster
-
Simon City Royals (white gang)
-
Diamond Crips
-
Maniac Latin Disciples
-
Latin Kings
The predominant age range for
joining gangs here is sixteen to twenty-one; however, the police department
has identified members as young as thirteen. Recruitment in Springfield
is not usually done, and individuals join gangs because their fathers and
brothers belong. Several years ago, however, the Diamond Crips were recruiting
in Springfield schools and branded several teenagers.
The alternative school in Springfield
contains numerous gang members. The other high schools have some gang members
who try to dominate the school. They try to instill fear into the other
students. According to Trump, students in schools with a gang presence
are twice as likely to report that they fear becoming victims of violence
than their peers at schools without gangs. "Moreover, a 1992 Bureau of
Justice Statistics survey reports that schools with gangs are significantly
more likely to have drugs available on campus than those without gangs."
(Bodinger-deUriarte)
Each alliance has its own symbols,
identifiers. The symbols often appear in combination which depicts both
the alliance and the individual gang. The People Nation symbols include
crown, staff, crescent, dice, number 5, spanish cross, cholo, pyramid,
glove, five point star, champagne glass, and bunny head. Along with the
symbols, they may use left identifiers. These can include hand signs with
the left hand, wearing hats tilted to the left or the left pant leg rolled
up, untying the left shoe, resting their hand in the left pocket or wearing
jewelry to the left. The Folk Nation symbols include devil's horns, dice,
number 6, backwards swastika, bent ear bunny head, sword, devil's tail,
six point star, and pitch fork. Their members use right identifiers displayed
by wearing caps, bandanas, or belt buckles to the right; wearing jewelry
to the right; or rolling up their right pant leg.
Some of the gangs in Springfield
do "hang out" together. Mr. Graves said it is not uncommon to pull a car
over and have a mix of gangs in it. The only way different gangs would
be together in the same car in Chicago is if one of the gangs was preparing
to kill or had already killed the other gang's member(s). When the Springfield
gangs do become rivals is when they are disputing over a drug house, gang
territory, because everything to them is "about the money".
Teaching at an elementary school,
I do not come into contact with students who are in gangs. I have been
suspicious of their parents but never the children. I know some of my first
graders have been exposed to gang activities by reports I have read in
our newspaper. Some of our families have been arrested for various acts
which may have been contributed to gang activity. In the past, I have had
students draw different symbols that represent gangs or wear bandanas.
When I asked the students what the symbol was or meant, they said they
did not know. I am sure some of them did not, but I would not doubt that
some of them really did understand the meaning.
I most definitely think some of these
students will grow up and join a gang. They do not know anything any different
than gang life. I have tried to talk to these students and tell them all
the choices they will have to make when they grow up. I let them know I
believe in them and hope they make choices they will be proud of. I try
to make them feel safe and valued at school. Our school has a Student Assistance
Program (SAP) which has support groups and conflict resolution programs.
I am a coleader of the fourth and fifth grade Chemical Dependence group
and know these kids need support and strategies for dealing with what they
deal with every day of their lives.
This picture
shows young children at a birthday party. They, obviously, have come into
contact with gang memebers. As you can see, most of these young children
are displaying gang signs.
Our school district offers training
for middle and high schools in how to deal with gangs and drugs. The Springfield
Police Department also offers various training for school personnel and
parents on gang related issues. The Illinois State Police developed
VEGA (Violdence Education & Gang Awareness) which is designed to meet
the needs of all communities regardless of the level of school violence
and gang involvement. It stresses the importance of resolving conflicts
without the use of violence, and provides young people with a better understanding
of the consequences they face when joining gangs and participatating in
acts of violence. It has a curriculum that supplements or enhances existing
prevention curriculum for firth and sixth-grade students. (Illinois State
Police)
As Sara Barnett stated, "a district-wide
discipline handbook is followed in all cases for certain offenses". (Barnett)
Also as Barnett wrote and the Springfield Public School Informational and
Discipline Handbook asserts:
Level I acts
are misbehaviors which impede the orderly operation of the classroom, school
and/or bus. Level II involves misbehaviors whose frequency or seriousness
tend to disrupt the learning climate of the school. It includes displaying
gang membership or affiliation. Disciplinary options range from conferences
to in-house suspension. Level III acts involve acts directed against persons
or property whose consequences may seriously endanger the health and safety
of others in the school. Participating in gang activities and gang/group
intimidation fall into this category. These acts are punishable by suspension,
both in and out house, and alternative programs. The final category, Level
IV, involves actions which are so serious that they always require at least
temporary removal of the student from the school. Anyone participating
in gang/group violence will be assigned to ten days out-of-school suspension,
referral to law enforcement authorities, and also will result in automatic
referral to the District Student Review Committee which could result in
additional disciplinary action. (Informational and Discipline Handbook)
Our coummunity, school district, and schools must work together to train
the youth to develop positive social skills and effective ways of coping
with violent situations. We should provide the sense of belonging they
are looking for when they turn to gangs. Aaorn Ebata, extension specialist
and professor of social development on the Urbana-Champaign campus, said,
"National data indicates that violent crime by youth has risen in the last
10 years." "Because there is no single or easily identifiable cause of
youth violence, we believe that prevention must include comprehensive,
community-wide collaborative efforts." (Barlow)
References:
Books:
Springfield Public Schools. Informational
and Discipline Handbook.
Personal:
Ridgely Elementary School, Springfield,
Illinois, 1994-200
Telephone conversation with Brian
Graves, Gang Officer, Springfield Police Department.
Websites:
Barlow, Jim. Parntership
Illinois: Former Gang Member Works With Violence-Prevention Program in
Springfield, March 1, 1996.
Barnett, Sara
Burnett, Gary. Gangs
in Schools.
Gangs
101
Illinois State Police. V.E.G.A.
Street
Gangs-Chicago Based or Influenced
Back to the Top
Lesson
14 - Question 6
Mediation Process
Research and describe the mediation
process. Use my paper, and information from other websites as a starting
point. Write about the following issues and others of your choice: Are
mediation and negotiation skills important life skills, or are they most
reasonable ways to talk about a conflict?, or are they, perhaps, something
else to you? Do they have any political, spiritual and/or philosophical
overtones?, describe them. Should all students and faculty be required
to master them? If so, how should they master them?
World peace starts with the management
of one conflict at a time. If you can catch a spark in time,
you may stop a wildfire.
Jon Curwen
According to mediate.com "Mediation
may be thought of as 'assisted negotiation.' N
