Final Submission of Written Assignments
Edpsy 399 OL - Spring 2001
Sara Barnett
Tom Anderson, Instructor
Assignment 1 Lesson 1 - q1
Contracts
Many teachers at all levels use "contracts," wherein individual students agree to behave in certain ways or complete specified work. Have you seen contracts used in this way? What does the literature/theories suggest about their strengths? What are their shortcomings? What do you think?
While doing research on contracts, I found that there were a couple of different contracts used by teachers. One, relates to behavior, and the other to learning. They both are grounded on the same premise. The contract relating to behavior is a formal agreement between the teacher and student, as well as parents and administrators. It states the terms of a behavior modification program. The contract makes explicit what the student needs to do and what the teacher will do if the student fulfills his/her side of the contract. The contract may also specify what help the teacher will supply in order to help the student attain the desired goal. Contingency contracts should be the result of reasonable negotiations between all parties.
Like all other forms of reinforcement, contingency contracts should employ consequences that are as natural as possible. If the contract involves artificial consequences, it is likely to lead to "the lawyer syndrome," in which the child tries to get by with as little as possible and looks for loopholes which will fulfill the contract's literal but not intended meaning (Balsam & Bondy, 1983).
The learning contract is a written plan that describes what an individual will learn as a result of some specified learning activity. It serves as a tool for promoting self-directed learning. These contracts have been used to help respond to the varying needs and backgrounds of learners. (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1985) According to Knowles, learning contracts consist of five major components:
While I was teaching I had the opportunity to use both types of contracts. I first employed the use of a behavior contract. I was working in a middle school on a team of four teachers. We were having difficultly with a student, Antonio Randle. Due to his inattentiveness to class work, he was failing all of our classes. Detentions for missing assignments had no affect on him. After we failed as individuals, we came together as a team to determine the best course of action. Incidentally, Antonio was the star of the seventh grade basketball team. We met as a team and included the assistant principal as well as the basketball coach. His mother declined the invitation. He was not only successful at basketball, he loved it as well. We determined the best course of action was to include basketball in his contract. Basketball was used as a positive reinforcement. He was given the opportunity to continue playing basketball if the conditions of his contract were met. An aversive event, placement on the ineligibility list, was also taken away. He abided by his contract faithfully during the remainder of the basketball season. Unfortunately, he slipped into his old habits shortly after the conclusion of the season. We tried to duplicate the contract with a different reinforcement but to no avail. Using this contract, and subsequent others, showed me that finding the correct reinforcement for the individual student is critical. Without that, the contract isn't meaningful for the student.
I also used learning contracts in my teaching. I taught seventh grade math to students who came from five different schools. This, coupled with various levels of ability, left a wide range of knowledge in my classes. I conquered this by giving pre-tests to see what students already knew about a particular subject. After each test, I would typically have five to seven students who knew a majority of the material presented in the chapter. It would be unfair for them to have to sit in a class when they already had the knowledge. For this reason, each one had a learning contract. I filled out part of the contract, which showed where there were deficiencies in their knowledge. They in turn completed the learning objectives they had for the remainder of the time. (They were provided guidance.) If the contract was to be followed, it had to be signed and discussed with their parents. This experience was very successful for all involved.
Overall Strengths:
Overall Weaknesses:
References:
Personal: Team meetings, Grant Middle School, 1996.
Website: http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/edps530/Chapter%2010.htm
Website: http://home.twcny.rr.com/hiemstra/tlchap8.html
Assignment 2 Lesson 1 q 3
Fear or Phobia
Explain a fear, phobia or some euphoric action of yours that seems to be linked to a typically "neutral" stimulus, like a color, a piece of clothing, place on the highway, seat in a car, or whatever. Do you remember any classical conditioning event from your past that might have created this type of response? Be sure to identify the UCS, UCR, CS (or previously neutral stimulus) and CR for your audience.
Charlie McCarthy
For many people, The Bubble Room on Captiva Island stirs up pleasant memories. This fascinating American-cuisine restaurant is composed of eye-catching memorabilia from the 1930's, 1940's and 1950's. Toy trains, twinkling colored lights and more than 2,000 movie stills and glossies of stage and screen legends greet customers curious to see Captiva's famed restaurant. I, for one, loved the place until I went on a quick tour only to see the dreaded toy of my childhood, Charlie McCarthy. For most people, the Charlie McCarthy doll is a neutral stimulus. Not the case for me.
My sister, who is eight years older than myself, received a Charlie McCarthy doll for a gift when she was 13. I liked the doll as much as she did. Around this time I wanted to be like my sister and be around her all the time. For someone just entering her teenage years, it didn't seem appealing to have a five year old around all the time. She tried various methods to get rid of me but nothing seemed to work. One day she was playing with her new ventriloquist doll when I appeared. All of a sudden she, acting as Charlie, started saying mean things in a terrible voice to me in order to scare me. It worked. Immediately I left the room and didn't return. She was elated that something finally worked to rid her of her bratty younger sister.
A few days later, the same scenario happened again. The stimulus elicited the same response. The same thing occurred a couple more times, all with the same response. A few days later, my sister wanted to get rid of me, but didn't want to go to the trouble of taking the doll out of its case and speaking with it. She merely pulled the box down started to open it and I left screaming. Once again, she was rewarded with the response she wanted.
She continued using the stimulus to get the response she wanted. The response never changed. She merely had to mention that she was getting the doll and I was scared to death. At times, I wouldn't even go to her room for fear of the doll.
As I grew older, the fear began to fade. (It helped that she went to college and got rid of the doll.) It was only when I was 18 and on a family trip to Captiva Island, Florida that I remebered the fear. Seeing the doll on the shelf immediately triggered the memories of being very scared. My family had a great time, at my expense, rehashing my experiences with the doll.
Looking back, my sister pulled of a case of classical conditioning. I didn't have an innate fear of the Charlie McCarthy doll, in fact I liked it when she first received the gift. In this case, the Charlie McCarthy doll was the neutral stimulus that was associated with the unconditioned stimulus of fear. The unconditioned response of fear became a conditioned response to the newly conditioned stimulus of the doll. Given that this response is not natural and has to be learned, the response is now a conditioned response and the neutral stimulus is now a conditioned stimulus.
Fortunately, I was able to break the stimulus-response connection and no longer fear the Charlie McCarthy doll.
Personal experiences:
Websites:
Book:
Assignment 3 Lesson 2 q2
Response to Evertson
Given below is an email correspondence
between me and Prof. Carolyn Evertson at Vanderbilt University. She and some
colleages have authored a very nice book on classroom management. I sometimes
use that book when I teach Edpsy 316 on campus. What is your reaction to my
inquiry about the exclusion of asertive discipline from her textbook?
Like classmates Liz Sanford and Todd Mickley, I found it shocking and irresponsible that a textbook on classroom management would have only one reference to one of the most widely used of all discipline programs, Assertive Discipline (AD). (Charles) It is necessary for educators to made decisions about management based on information. In her reply, she states that she doesn't like to recommend to teachers techniques that put the burden of compliance on students without asking the question, "What is the value and quality of what I am asking them to comply with?" I believe that for this reason it is her responsibility to her readers to share information about all methods of management. Readers need to question for themselves and determine what is best for their situation.
She gives two reasons for not including AD in her book: 1) it has been labeled psychological maltreatment; and 2) doubts about its effectiveness. Both of these reasons are weak. First, it was in 1988 that the American Psychological Association labeled AD as psychological maltreatment. Since AD was first introduced in 1976, they have "progressively modified their approach." (Charles, 84) I, like classmate Liz Sanford, searched the APA website and was unable to find any references to AD. In 1992, the Canters explained that students have a need for and the right to a warm, supportive classroom environment in which to learn, where teachers do all in their power to help students be successful. (Charles, 85) From their modifications, it hardly appears that this constitutes psychological maltreatment.
Evertson's second reason for not including AD in her book was due to concerns of its effectiveness. This may be due to the fact that there has been limited research on the effectiveness of such a widely accepted discipline system. (Curwin and Mendler, 1989) "We found only 16 studies (10 dissertations, 3 journals, and 3 other reports) meeting our criteria. Equally surprising is the nature of the studies. Not one study systematically investigated the program's effectiveness compared with any other specific approach" (Render, Padilla, and Krank, 1989, p. 72). <From Gene Van Tassel> As Mickley states in his response, "Although there may not be research findings that support the use of the assertive discipline model, it should be included in the text as a reference to aspiring and current teachers to try if they believe it would be beneficial to their students and themselves."
While reading about the AD model, I found that it is the model that I used in my classroom to a large extent. I used rules that were stated in the positive, and had consequences similar to those mentioned in the textbook. The one issue I struggled with was that rules had to be in effect at all times. I had a rule that said that in order to speak you needed to raise your hand and be called on. In retrospect, this was a terrible rule because half of the time it was enforced and the other half it wasn't due to the nature of the activity. If I were to go back to the classroom this would be a direction for students rather than a rule due to the inconsistency of the rule.
While I believe in the AD model, I think it is important to remember that teachers need to use their professional judgment when determining how to structure their classroom management plans. Very often it is necessary to blend more than one model to come up with one that will work for the students in the classroom . Furthermore, it is important for teachers to keep in mind that "We can't treat all students exactly alike. Some students may be given special incentive programs or behavior modification programs before they can live up to the standards expected." (The Canter Model)
References:
Websites:
Anderson, Tom. Commentary on Assertive Discipline.
The Canter Model: Assertively Taking Charge
Schoolwide and Classroom Discipline.
American Psychological Association.
Van Tassel, Gene. Classroom Management.
An Examination of the Effect of Certain Discipline Systems on Student Self-Esteem.
Books:
Charles, C.M. Building Classroom Discipline.
Assignment 4 Lesson 3 q1
Using Punishment to Control the Actions of Students
What are some ways that you use punishment to control the actions of students? Are those ways effective? Are there other alternatives?
As a classroom teacher, punishment was a routine, daily occurrence. My classroom management plan was based on the Assertive Disciple model. The rules were stated in the positive and the rewards and consequences were laid out at the beginning of the year. The students were taught to realize that consequences naturally follow misbehavior. (Charles, 94) Additionally, I explained the consequences and the connection to student behavior. (Cotton)
The consequences were arranged in a discipline hierarchy, with growing level of unpleasantness after each infraction. While teaching seventh grade, the first consequence was a warning, followed by a minute after class, two minutes after class and phone call or email home, noon detention and phone call or email home, referral to the principal's office. Except for the warning, the student had to complete a behavior journal.
I found this system to be effective in most cases. In the cases it didn't work, a lot of the blame was on my shoulders for not choosing rules that could be in place at all times (i.e. raise your hand and wait to be called on to speak.) or for ignoring misconduct. When I consistently monitored classroom activities and gave students feedback regarding their behavior, the plan worked.
The one part of the plan that didn't work was the severe clause or the fifth consequence, referral to the principal's office. This usually resulted in an in-house suspension, which was very ineffective. For some students, this was perceived as a reward. The students were instructed to complete their work and then spend the remainder of the time doing anything silent. For many, this was nice because there wasn't any pressure that the teacher would call on them, they couldn't get in trouble, and it gave them extra time to complete their classwork/homework. Due to this, I quickly learned that it was best to discipline in the classroom, not the principal's office.
Kathleen Cotton states in Schoolwide and Classroom Discipline that punishment is an effective method of individual remediation when it is:
While teachers and schools do have the right and the responsibility to set
standards of behavior, to define and inflict punishments where appropriate, it
is important to remember that most of the punishment takes place due to behavior
that is irritating and annoying, not truly serious.
References:
Websites:
Cotton, Kathleen. Schoolwide and Classroom Discipline.
Ultimate Deterrents: Punishment and Control in English and American Schools.
Personal experience:
Grant Middle School, 1996-1999.
Book:
Charles, C.M. Building Classroom Discipline.
Assignment 5 Lesson 3 q2
Corporal Punishment
Punishment still lingers in various forms in most school districts -- so does corporal punishment! Where? In what forms does it exist in your district? What does research say about the effects of punishment, and of corporal punishment? What do you say about the use of punishment? Why?
According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, in 1993 Illinois enacted a law that bans corporal punishment in public schools. Most people would assume that this put an end to all corporal punishment in Illinois. State Board of Education spokeswoman Kim Knauer said that the law bans "slapping, paddling or prolonged maintenance of students in physically painful positions." (Robinson) Unfortunately, due to a loophole, this is not necessarily the case. The law allows school districts to apply for an exemption if they want to continue to paddle the students. George Ryan, current governor of Illinois, in a 1998 article, said that some school districts have asked to be exempted from the ban. But he said that state lawmakers have refused to do so thus far.
There will always be people who feel that they are above the law. Because of that, it is naive to think that corporal punishment has been eliminated in Illinois or any of the other states where is has been banned. Within the district I work, there are strict guidelines regarding the use of corporal punishment. It is simply not tolerated. Classroom management plans are turned in to the principal at the start of the year. The plans have to include the rules and both positive and negative consequences. The plan must be posted in the classroom the entire school year. I have only been in the district five years, but according to Diane Fulton, district 186 indoctrinated all teachers with Canter’s AD procedures in the 1980’s. The district had mandatory after school workshops in the early 80’s that strongly advocated and reinforced the AD concept. Assertive discipline is based on "the potential, positive influence that teachers can have on the behavior of their students". Teachers take charge in a positive manner. (Haberkorn) There is no room for corporal punishment in district 186.
Research shows that corporal punishment is an ineffective method of discipline. The following is an excerpt from the position paper of the Society for Adolescent Medicine:
There is no clear evidence that such punishment effectuates more discipline or better control in the classroom. Physically punishing children has never been shown to enhance moral character development, increase the student's respect for teachers or other authority figures in general, or intensify the teacher's control in class. Such children, in our view, are being physically and mentally abused and there are no data actually demonstrating that such victims develop enhanced social skills or self-control skills. Current research concludes that corporal punishment is not always a method of last resort, and that there is not an increase in violence in schools which reject use of this technique. There are many effective alternatives to corporal punishment, and it is possible for school authorities to learn them and for children to benefit from such techniques.
Corporal punishment is a degrading and humiliating treatment. Some children, upon seeing an adult in authority behave this way toward a child, interpret it as a license for them to do the same. For this reason, the use of corporal punishment promotes bullying and cruelty among children. Schools are role models for their communities. They should set the highest possible standard. When teacher violence is condoned, abusive parents and other abusive adults feel exonerated. Corporal punishment in the schools promotes child abuse in the general community. (Riak)
Reading on punishment has driven me to reflect on my views of punishment. I believe that corporal punishment should be banned everywhere in the United States. It does more harm than good and is often used for minor infractions. Educators should be taking charge in a positive manner.
References:
Websites:
American Academy of Pediatrics
Haberkorn, Jennifer. Lesson 2 - Question 2: Assertive Discipline.
Fulton, Diane. Lesson 2 Question 2.
The National PTA. Corporal Punishment - Myths and Realities(1991)
Society for Adolescent Medicine, Journal of Adolescent Health: 1992; 13:240-246. (On internet)
Robinson, Mike. Poshard Would Let Schools Paddle Pupils. Associated Press, 27 August 1998.
Riak, Jordan. TWENTY GOOD REASONS TO STOP A BAD PRACTICE
Assignment 6 Lesson 4q3
Jones and Incentives
Critics of Jones’s incentive systems do not like the idea of "bribing" students to work and behave in prescribed ways. This complaint is made about behavior modification, as well. Would you consider using incentives (PAT's), as he suggests? Why or why not? How are incentives similar to/different from bribes? and positive reinforcers?
The word bribe is often used in education. Critics think that when we offer a reward of some sort we are bribing our students. This is simply not the case. Webster's dictionary defines a bribe as " a gift or promise given unethically in return for a favor." We are not trying to persuade them to do something illegal or immoral. We are simply trying to modify their behavior in a positive way. Of course, it would be nice if everyone was able to engage in academic activity and other appropriate behavior for the "love of learning," but the sad truth of the matter is that children sometimes have never experienced any success with academic work. (Hopkins)
The goal of any behavior modification program is to wean the child or adult from the more obvious externally provided reinforcers to the intrinsic, more naturally occurring reinforcements that the successful completion of a task brings. The rewards are simply a means to show the child the intrinsic rewards that accompany the external rewards.
Incentives, often confused with bribes by critics, are defined as something that incites to action; motivates; spurs. In the classroom, incentives come in the form of something that is preferred by an individual or an entire class. In the Jones model, Preferred Activity Time [PAT] is time allocated for activities that students enjoy. Jones believes that is important to consider three things when introducing PAT: first, students must want the activity, second, they must earn the time, and third, the teacher must be able to live with the PAT. (Charles, 114) When these criteria are met, PAT can be goof for both the children and the teacher.
Dr. Ruth Peters, a clinical psychologist from Clearwater, Fla., and study skills consultant to Sylvan Learning Centers, suggests a system of rewards to motivate children to do their homework in a timely, acceptable fashion. She would rather provide incentives to a kid and jump start the behavior, internal motivation and attitude change than watch kids fail. (Kranz)
Experts are sharply divided over the use of rewards or bribes to get children to do their homework or behave in an acceptable manner. Those opposed say rewards don't teach children to take responsibility for themselves. In an article about business management, Alfie Kohn states his opposition to incentives and rewards:
Do rewards work? The answer depends on what we mean by "work." Research suggests that, by and large, rewards succeed at securing one thing only: temporary compliance. Incentives, a version of what psychologists call extrinsic motivators, do not alter the attitudes that underlie our behaviors. They do not create an enduring commitment to any value or action.
Punishment and rewards are two sides of the same coin. Rewards have a punitive effect because they, like outright punishment, are manipulative. "Do this and you'll get that" is not really very different from "Do this or here's what will happen to you." In the case of incentives, the reward itself may be highly desired; but by making that bonus contingent on certain behaviors, managers manipulate their subordinates, and that experience of being controlled is likely to assume a punitive quality over time. Do rewards motivate people? Absolutely. They motivate people to get rewards.
In a perfect world, all students would follow the rules because it is the right thing to do. Unfortunately, in reality those students are outnumbered by the ones that need incentives to help them see the intrinsic, more naturally occurring reinforcements that the successful completion of a task brings.
While teaching fifth grade last year, my classroom was next to someone who used PAT on a regular basis. The students were allowed to earn time by exhibiting good behavior in the classroom. This particular teacher allowed them to bank time and use it every Friday afternoon. All afternoon. When used in that fashion, I think it loses the appeal. I believe that in order for it to be effective, it truly needs to be earned by the students. In my classroom I used incentives regularly with my students. They ranged from educational: spelling games, math puzzles and extra computer time, to simply fun: popcorn, class discussions, and the occasional movie (which was always tied to classroom reading).
References:
Personal:
Iles Elementary School, 1999-2000. Fifth grade teaching experiences.
Websites:
Kohn, Alfie. Why Incentive Plans Cannot Work
Kranz, Cindy. Should you bribe your kids to do homework? The Cincinnati Enquirer.
Timothy Hopkins Behavior Management FAQ.
Book:
Charles, C.M. Building Classroom Discipline.
Assignment 7 Lesson 4 q4
Kounin and Conductor Metaphor
In some ways Kounin’s model casts the teacher into an orchestra conductor’s role. Discuss how this can be a reasonable metaphor, and some places where the metaphor breaks down. Does this metaphor work well to explain your teaching techniques? Design one that might work better.
After reading about Jacob Kounin's model of classroom management, I set out to determine if the metaphor of the orchestra conductor was reasonable. On a search of the internet, I found an article on leadership at the Ericsson website. The following came from their site:
Imagine the orchestra, the conductor standing ready to play. Everyone knows their role; everyone is briefed and knows their part. Practice with mistakes having been made and rectified, problems and questions sorted. Everyone is ready. The conductor makes ready. Everyone is silent and with a nod the music starts. This is what being a leader and a team is all about. Communication at perfection.
If you look at that role, you will find that the conductor is important, but unless he is a good communicator and get the whole of the orchestra in tune, the effort is lost. Performance is filled with faults, the players disgruntled. The audience will leave and not return. Practice and communication to the whole group and on a one-to-one basis are vital. This makes a good conductor perform masterpieces.
With this in mind, I think it is reasonable to cast the teacher into an orchestra conductor's role. As stated in Building Classroom Discipline, Kounin's principal teachings focus on the following:
Withitness refers to the teacher's knowing what is going on in all parts of the classroom at all times. By the very nature of the job, a teacher must act as a conductor. The conductor is constantly monitoring all of the members of the orchestra to achieve the optimal performance. In that same manner, a teacher must be aware of everything that goes on in the class in order to create a positive classroom atmosphere.
Momentum and smoothness are essential to a conductor. A musical selection would lose the effect if members had to stop and talk in between parts. Likewise, when changing the direction of the class, the transitions must be smooth, for it is at this time that student misbehavior is most likely to occur. (Charles, 34) As Deb Wuest states, Kounin's model focuses on preventive discipline -- techniques and strategies designed to prevent the occurrence of discipline problems in the first place. Maintaining momentum and smooth transitions is "more important to work involvement and classroom control than any other behavior-management technique." (Charles, 38)
Group alerting is absolutely essential if a conductor is going to direct a high quality performance. He must be able to quickly get the attention of all of his members. For conductors, universal signs make this much easier for them than it is for teachers. Teachers must employ the use of body language as well as verbal phrases. The end result, if effective, is a class that is alert, attentive and involved.
Student accountability is perhaps the key ingredient in a well managed classroom. Like in an orchestra, each student has a part and must be an active participant for the process to be effective. Tactics such as asking all students to write an answer, then choosing one or two to respond. (Wageman) This raises the likelihood that students are on-task and actively involved. When students are actively engaged in an activity, they are less likely to misbehave.
Overlapping is a skill that both good conductors and teachers need to possess. It refers to attending to two or more issues at a time. (Charles, 40) During a performance, a conductor is always checking on the various parts of his ensemble and making signals to help improve their performance. Likewise, it is important for a teacher to be able to work simultaneously with many students when they are completing tasks independently as well as within groups. They also need to be able to monitor and correct misbehavior in the entire room even if they are stationed in just one location.
Satiation must be avoided at all costs because when students become bored, misbehavior is often likely to occur. Another way to be an effective teacher is to provide challenges for students. This helps foster a positive learning environment.
Both teachers and conductors are leaders in their own environment. In both of these cases, communication is the key. Communication must be frequent and delivered in different methods. I believe that the metaphor is quite fitting. I would love to say that while I was teaching I was had all of those qualities all of the time, but I know that isn't really the truth. Some days I was really withit, and others, don't ask. I think that if I was being rated as the conductor it would depend on what day you came to the performance.
References:
Websites:
Wageman. Jacob Kounin: Instructional Management.
Wuest, Deb. Are You With It?
Book:
Charles, C.M. Building Classroom Discipline.
Assignment 8 Lesson 5 q3
STM Overload
Report some testimonies when your short-term memory or that of your students appeared to be overloaded. What did you do about it?
My first reaction to this question was to write about all of the times I am making dinner while doing another task simultaneously, such as talking on the phone or with my husband. I have found that when I am not paying attention to the task at hand, I often forget where I am in the process. Did I add the salt already? Virtually every time I make chocolate chip cookies I forget how many cups of flour I have already added. This has led to many recipes that weren't the best! Because this is a recurring problem, I devised a very primitive system to help me out. When measuring the flour, I move chocolate chips to correspond to the number of half-cups I have measured out. This way if I am stopped mid-task, or if I simply lose count, I don't have to worry that my cookies are going to be ruined.
Thinking about this type of experience reminded me of times when I was young when I experienced short-term memory overload at birthday parties. My first memory of this took place at Stacey Paul's 9th birthday party. After everyone arrived, we started playing games. One of the games was a memory game. Lots of items were put on a tray and brought out for a few seconds. We were told to study them. At this point I panicked. I couldn't concentrate on any of the objects that I was supposed to be studying. They were then removed and we had to list as many objects as we could. I was only able to list a few items. Others around me listed far more. Needless to say I lost the game. Being a competitive person, I wanted to figure out how to win. When I went home from the party, I discussed the game with my family. They each gave me strategies to improve my chances. The strategies they suggested all were a variation of the same theme-- chunking information together. I tried this strategy often over the next few weeks. The next time I played the game at another birthday party, I did much better. I eventually did win a few times.
Research indicates that people remember no more than 7 new facts—plus or minus 2. (Bruning, 17) We can expect all people to remember at least 5 new pieces of information. Think of the phone number 356 8294. Can you remember it? Now, add the area code 792. It becomes more difficult, right? Short term memory has a limited capacity. The individual pieces we can remember can be large or small, depending on how much prior experience we have with the information. The answer is to chunk the information. A chunk is a piece of information that can be small or large. The more experience we have with a subject the larger the chunks. A large chunk is possible when we have developed patterns or associations in long term memory that can be tied to items in our short term memory. (Baer)
References:
Book:
Bruning, Roger. Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Chapters 2-3.
Personal Experiences:
Stacey Paul's birthday party. October 1983.
Websites:
Baer, Phil. Training Tips, Methods & Resources. Computer Training Principles Part 2
Assignment 9 Lesson 6 q3
Procedural & Declarative Knowledge
How convincing do
you find the theory that states that procedural knowledge often starts out as
declarative knowledge?
There is a fundamental difference between declarative and procedural knowledge. Declarative knowledge refers to factual knowledge and information that a person knows. Procedural knowledge, on the other hand, is knowing how to perform certain activities (Bruning, 46). According to John Anderson of Carnegie-Mellon University, all knowledge starts out as declarative information and procedural knowledge is acquired through inferences from already existing knowledge. (Payson) This is not to say that all procedural knowledge is "higher-order" knowledge. It is often done without any attention to what we are doing or why we are doing it, or automatized. (Bruning, 47) An example would be driving a car.
Any skill being learned starts out as declarative knowledge. For example, when I was learning to play tennis, I learned all about the rules of the game, where to come into contact with the ball on my racket, how to make the ball go where I wanted to by the follow through, and how to position my body for a backhand stroke. This is a set of factual information. Putting those facts into practice helped me gain the skills to transform a series of declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge. The skills I acquired couldn't be learned simply by being told. I gained the skills only after actively putting them into practice and being monitored by a coach who was constantly providing feedback.
In education, there is a mix of declarative and procedural knowledge being presented. It is important to remember that declarative knowledge has to be present to form procedural knowledge, but it shouldn't be the only type of knowledge taught. Learning the declarative knowledge helps set the stage for the procedural knowledge. Teaching students to use the facts and information they have gained in context helps ensure long term retention. Below are listed some of the benefits of emphasizing procedural knowledge in school.
| Declarative Knowledge | Procedural Knowledge |
| Reliant on authoritative Instruction | Reliant on coaching and modeling from teacher. |
| Lends itself to Elaborate Grading system and ability groupings. | Flexible and open-ended, spontaneous, progresiveness,dialogic context. |
| Fosters dependency, Tell me what to do and think attitude. | Self-directed, personal efficacy. |
| Easily forgotten | Long-term retention. |
| Stifiles creativity and discourages independent problem-solving and strategy building. | Yields creative, reflective thought and promoters critical thinking and independent decision making. |
| Teacher's role as dispenser and arbiter of knowledge. | Teacher's role as enabler, facilitator, stage manager, guide, resource. |
Below is a graphic from The Knowledge in Knowledge Management (KM) website that illustrates the connection of declarative and procedural knowledge. Procedural knowledge depends on having built the prior, or declarative, knowledge.
Fred Nichols, 2000
References:
Books:
Bruning, Roger. Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Chapters 1-3.
Personal Experience:
Tennis lessons, Homestead Country Club. 1984-1992.
Websites:
Anderson, John. The Architecture of Cognition, (Cambridge, 1983) Chapter 6, Procedural Learning.
Hetrick, Judi. Looking for Insight into Teaching.
Nichols, Fred. The Knowledge in Knowledge Management (KM)
Mount Saint Vincent University. Literacy, Curriculum & Technology.
Payson. Anderson's Framework for Cognitive Skill Acquisition.
Assignment 10 Lesson 7q2
Mnemonics
What is your disposition on their usefullness, and what do they contribute to classroom learning? Contribute some mnemonics that you teach, have learned and/or have heard of.
There are several types of mnemonics that students can use to improve their memory.
The Peg Method: In this system, items that are to be learned are hooked by vivid mental images onto the "pegs" that have already been learned in a certain order. (Mirick) This system has been shown to be effective with word lists (Bruning, 83)
The Method of Loci: Perhaps the oldest mnemonic device is "METHOD OF LOCI (place)". This method is said to have first been used around 500 B.C. by the ancient Greeks. There are several important steps involved in using this method. First, the learner must use a well-known street, building, room or "layout" where there are as many distinctive locations as there are items in the list to be remembered. The list of these locations is memorized in a particular order. Next the learner must make up a vivid, concrete image of each of the items in the list to be remembered. Then associate each item in some vivid, concrete way with the "mental snapshot" of these distinctive locations in their proper order. (Mirick)
Stories: In this type of mnemonic device, the words that are to be learned are put together in a story. When it is time to retrieve the information, the story is recalled and the words are extracted from the story. (Bruning, 85)
First-Letter Method: This method involves using the first letter of the to-be-learned words to construct acronyms or words. (Bruning, 85) This method is the one most popular mnemonic used spontaneously There are two steps involved in using this memory device. First write down the first letter of each word after arranging the words in the order that you want to remember them. Now choose words that start with the same letters and also seem to go together to form a memorable sentence or phrase. According to Bruning, there is no compelling evidence for teaching this method (Bruning, 86). I disagree. Research has indicated that students who have been taught strategies for creating their own mnemonics out-perform comparison students in free-study conditions. (Mastropieri)
Keyword Method: This method consists of two stages: an acoustic link and an imagery link. The first stage identifies the keyword in the word to be learned. The second part requires the learner to imagine the keyword interacting with the learning of the vocabulary word. (Bruning, 86) This method is considered to be the most flexible and powerful
Mnemonics have a place in education. Memory for factual information is absolutely essential for success in school. According to a study by Pumam, teachers give an average of 11 tests over a nine week grading period. He found that the overwhelming majority of these questions required the student to recall a specific fact. Given that information, it is the important for teachers to teach their students not only what to remember, but how to remember it. (Mastropieri)
I was amazed at how many mnemonics I have used in my life. Below are just a few that I have used (and still do).
Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally. Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication, Division, Addition, Subtraction. (As a math teacher, this is one I used and taught to my students)
King Phillip came over for good sex. i h l r a e p n y a d m n e g l s e i u c d u s r l s i o m y e m s The proper ordering of the biological groupings used in taxonomy.
Never Eat Soggy Waffles. To remember the cardinal directions.
I before E except after C And when saying "A" as in Neighbor or Weigh. I still use this one when spelling certain words.
My last is a song sung to the tune of Hi ho, hi ho it's off to work we go. I learned this over ten years ago, and I still sing it sometimes even though I have no use for it.
Aller, venir, entrer, sortir,
monter, descendre, arriver,
partir, rester, retourner,
tomber, mourir, et naitre
avec etre.
Le particpe passe s'accord avec le sujet.
References:
Websites:
Mastropieri, Margo A. and Thomas E. Scruggs. Enhancing School Success with Mnemonic Strategies.
Putnam, M. L. Characteristics of questions on tests administered by mainstream secondary classroom teachers. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 7, 129-136.
Mirick, Susie. College of William & Mary
Tipper, Michael. The Happy Child Organization.
Book:
Bruning, Roger, Gregory Schraw, and Royce Ronning. Cognitive Psychology and Instruction.
Assignment 11 Lesson 7 q3
Study Skills
Successful students employ a variety of strategies in
order to learn information from the myriad of possible meanings found on a page
of text. Sometimes these are called studying strategies. Simply put, they are
encoding strategies that help information to transit from working memory to
long-term memory. More importantly they are strategies under the control of
readers -- if they know how and when to employ them.
Which of these strategies do you feel comfortable with?
Under which conditions do you use them? Being a successful student, how did you
learn to use the strategies that work for you?
Throughout elementary school, I encountered only minor problems with studying. Everything seemed to come easy for me. That is why I was shocked when my parents announced that I would be attending Study Land in seventh grade. Study Land was a class for middle school students run by a former teacher, Gertie Max. The class was held in her basement two hours a session, two sessions a week for ten weeks. It was a small class of ten students, and seven of us felt we didn't need the class because we were good students who did school well. By all accounts, the parents were pleased that we were accepted in the class. The class traditionally has a waiting list of four to six years. It wasn't until years later that I would realize the importance of Study Land and why my parents were so happy to have secured a spot for me. Below is a list of the topics studied at Study Land (From The Gertie Max Study Systemizer)
Your GOAL: Better Grades and Success in School!
Study Land focused on the skills necessary to become better students. Quite simply, Mrs. Max was helping us develop metacognitive knowledge. According to Pressley, Borkowski, and Schneider, a good strategy user would have:
a broad repertoire of strategies,
metacognitive knowledge about why, when, and where to use strategies,
a broad knowledge base,
the ability to ignore distractions, and
automaticity in the four components described above. (Bruning, 98)
Throughout the class, several strategies were introduced. The one I recall most vividly is the one I use when studying today. Each week we were required to make up two self-tests in the areas of math, science and social studies. The tests had ten questions that had to contain multiple choice and completion items. On the same day, we made the answer key. The next day we took the test. Each day after that we reviewed the tests we had already taken. I translated this process into note cards and used them faithfully for almost all of my subjects in middle school, high school, and college. This enabled me to regularly practice (distributed practice) and I didn't have to cram for a test (massed practice). It also helped me apply the three components of regulating cognition: planning, regulation, and evaluation. (Bruning, 96) I planned which strategies would work best for the type of learning I needed to accomplish, set goals for my learning and budgeted my time. I continually monitored my own comprehension, and asked questions when I was unsure. I also evaluated where I was in the learning process, which meant going back to my original goals and revising them if necessary.
Mrs. Max modeled the strategies that she taught which helped us realize why she choose the particular strategy, when it worked best, and where to use the particular strategies. She wasn't limited by one curricular area which helped us to see the merits across the curriculum.
Mrs. Max wasn't able to directly help with ensuring a broad knowledge base, but she was able to give us the strategies we needed to build that knowledge base. The class focused on the ability to become the best student possible. To be the best student possible, students must be able to motivate themselves, tune out distractions, and realize that progress can be directly attributed to effort, not ability. (Bruning, 99)
Study Land helped participants accomplish all of the strategies automatically. At the conclusion of the class, we were able to perform tasks with minimum drain on our resources. This translated into high academic achievement throughout the rest of our school days.
The following strategies help students acquire information from
text.
* Answering adjunct questions
* Attending to text signals
* Determining importance of ideas
* Drawing inferences
* Generating and using advance organizers
* Generating questions
* Monitoring comprehension
* Organizing, outlining and mapping ideas
* Rehearsing
* Schema activation
* Summarizing information
After looking at the strategies and then reading the selected chapters of text, I realized that I employ all of these strategies, some more than others. For example, I found that I was monitoring comprehension after every page. I briefly stopped and asked questions, determined the importance of ideas and summarized information. With my students I occasionally provided advance organizers. After reading about the positive effects of advance organizers, I would use them more frequently with my students. Anything that will help activate relevant schemata for to-be-learned material and correct the activated schemata so that new material can be assimilated to them should be used in the classroom (Bruning, 88)
It is important for teachers to help their students become good strategy users and help them become more metacognitively aware. Good learners know a lot about their own thinking and memory and use this information to regulate their learning. (Bruning, 102) Students who aren't good learners need help to strengthen their skills.
References:
Bruning, Roger, Gregory Schraw and Royce Ronning. Cognitive Psychology and Instruction.
Personal experience: Study Land, 1986-1987.
Max, Gertie. The Gertie Max Study Systemizer.
Assignment 12 Lesson 8 q2
Phonics and Whole Language
Do you think the phonics versus whole language debate in the learning to read process is relevant when thinking about students reading from the computer screen?
When I was in college, I took a reading methods course from a professor who strongly believed that the only approach to learning to read was the whole language method. He studied classroom reading instruction to support his hypothesis that whole language was indeed the best method, and then wrote a textbook. Because he thought whole language was better than phonics, he didn't spend much time discussing the phonics approach. At the conclusion of the course, I felt that I needed to start teaching using the whole language approach because I had a narrow, uninformed view of the two methods.
Phonics is a code-emphasis method that emphasized learning the correspondence between sounds. This method stresses acquisition of basic sound-letter relationships and the rules for sounding out words. Whole language, on the other hand, is a meaning-emphasis method that favors meaning over decoding in beginning reading. (Bruning, 255-256) Simply stated, supporters of the whole language approach think children's literature, writing activities, and communication activities can be used across the curriculum to teach reading; backers of phonics instruction insist that a direct, sequential mode of teaching enables students to master reading in an organized way. (Cromwell)Fortunately, most current models of reading and authorities on reading instruction stake out a middle ground between the methods, arguing that both are essential to learning to read. (Bruning, 256) Balanced instruction combines the best elements from phonics instruction and the whole-language approach. That is, children are explicitly taught the relationship between letters and sounds in a systematic fashion, but they are being read to and reading interesting stories and writing at the same time. (Diegmueller)
In recent years the computer has been introduced in the classroom as a method of instruction. It is important to remember that the computer is a tool for learning, not the tool. Primary teachers will continue to be the most important factor in teaching children to read. Therefore, the debate between whole language and phonics will probably continue for many years.
As noted by classmate Jennifer Haberkorn, a first grade teacher, computer instruction is effective for a wide variety of reading skill and concept areas. She points out that it is important that teachers match their use of computers with what is known about the reading/writing process. Guidelines for Computer-Assisted Reading Instruction, an article by Marjorie Sims, gives guidelines to use as a checklist to help teachers integrate computers into reading/writing instruction.
Computer instruction in reading should:
Following her guidelines, computers can serve to help all students become
literate.
References:
Websites:
ASCD. Major Trends in Language Arts Instruction.
Cromwell, Sharon. Whole Language and Phonics: Can They Work Together? Education World, 1997.
Diegmueller, Karen. The Best of Both Worlds. Education Week. March 20, 1996
Haberkorn, Jennifer. Phonics vs. Whole Language.
Holdren, John. Not "either/or" but "both/and": Phonics and Whole Language. Common Knowledge, Volume 8, No. 3, Summer 1995
Simic, Marjorie R. Guidelines for Computer-Assisted Reading Instruction.
Weaver, Constance, Lorraine Gillmeister-Krause and Grace Vento-Zogby. On phonics in whole language classrooms. From Creating Support for Effective Literacy Education: Workshop Materials and Handouts.
Weaver, Constance. Phonics in Whole Language Classrooms. ERIC Digest.
Books:
Bruning, Roger, Gregory Schraw and Royce Ronning. Cognitive Psychology and Instruction.
Reutzel, D. Ray and Robert B. Cooter. Teaching Children to Read: From Basals to Books.
Personal Experiences:
Texas Christian University. Teaching Reading class taught by Robert Cooter and Sutton Flynt. June 1995, London.
Assignment 13 Lesson 11 q4
Cognitive and Behaviorist Teachers
Compare the ways that a teacher with a behaviorist leaning and one with a cognitive leaning view errors that students make during learning and testing? Make your discussion relevant to psychological theory and your content area.
A teacher with a behaviorist leaning would perceive mistakes as displays of insufficient conditioning. In contrast, teachers with a cognitive leaning would perceive mistakes as "misconceptions" that arise from a combination of prior knowledge and instructed subject matter. Often students suffer from "confirmation bias" that distorts experience to fit prior theory. (Roschelle)
Not all mistakes can be viewed in the same light. Some mistakes are occur as part of the learning process. When students are learning how to do a difficult task they often will have mistakes because they do not yet know the process completely. During this time, it is the role of the teacher to guide the students and provide feedback so they can improve. For example, when a student is learning how to jump hurdles in gym class teachers don't expect perfection on the first try. Students learn from their mistakes. The same holds true for lessons learned in the classroom. We practice to increase the likelihood of success.
Other mistakes can be signs of a serious flaw in students' thinking. Such as when a student consistently is unable to show mastery of a concept. It is at this time that both types of teachers would look for ways to help the student understand the concept. This could come in the form of flexible grouping or one-on-one assistance, and is likely to include other strategies to help the student master the concept. For cognitive leaning teachers, they would be likely to use advance organizers to activate schema.
Cognitive leaning teachers in science have the task of confronting "misconceptions" that students bring with them to the classroom. Teachers must acknowledge this prior knowledge, and then teach a curriculum that includes experiments, observations, and dialogue that will challenge and eventually change those misconceptions. (Learch) Studies of science learning remind us that scientific thinking is comprised of many diverse components. Learning can occur by recontextualizing, re-prioritizing, or refining the parts. For example, many "misconceptions" are correct elements of knowledge which have been over generalized. By specifying a narrower range of situations, the concepts become "correct." (Roschelle)
According to Roschelle, to overcome the paradox of continuity for science learning, we should attend to several guidelines for interpreting prior knowledge:
I believe that I didn't lean just one way in my classroom. I often rewarded students. I also provided experiences for students to help them combine prior knowledge and new learning. I realized that learning occurs through a transformative, restructuring process that produces integrative wholes that coordinate pre-existing parts. I concur with Roschelle when he states that "refinement and restructuring occurs incrementally and gradually; conceptual change is hard work and takes a long time." (Roschelle)
As the elementary science curriculum coordinator for my school district, I found the implications for instruction extremely important. I am working to make sure that the teachers in the district are doing the following things suggested by Bruning (368-370):
It will be a process of continual education and training to help teachers shift the focus of science instruction that is likely to take a long time. It will be time well spent.
References:
Websites:
Anderson, Tom. Commentary/Lecture Notes
Learch, Donna. EdPsy 399 May 2000 Commentary.
Roschelle, Jeremy. University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth. Learning in Interactive Environments: Prior Knowledge and New Experience
Books:
Bruning, Roger, Gregory Schraw and Royce Ronning. Cognitive Psychology an Instruction.
Charles, C.M. Building Classroom Discipline.
Assignment 14 Lesson 13 q1
Glasser Switch
A large city school system is considering switching from its traditional classroom management program to the Glasser technique. What are the most important problems that it is likely to encounter and how might they be resolved?
An overview of The Glasser Model from Developing a Discipline Plan for You:
Good Behavior Comes from Good Choices. Glasser's recent work focuses on the class meeting as a means of developing class-wide discipline.The following are problems the Springfield Public Schools would be likely to encounter and possible solutions. The solutions come from my perspective as an administrator.
Problem: If the standards, benchmarks, and body of knowledge are supposed to be the curriculum, how can we allow students to choose the topics they want to study. Won't this lead to gaps in learning? How will this affect those students who change schools during the year?
Resolution: Glasser calls for quality teaching in all classrooms. He believes that students should only do work that is useful. Information should be taught and learned provided it meets at least one of the following criteria:
The information is directly related to an important skill.
The information is something that students express a desire to learn.
The information is something the teacher believes is especially useful. (Remember that our standards, benchmarks, and body of knowledge were created by teachers in our district.)
The information is required for college entrance exams. (Charles, 187)
The standards, benchmarks, and body of knowledge consist of the basic set of skills that we want our students to master before leaving that grade level. They compose approximately 75% of your curriculum. As long as they are covered, you can add additional material that has high student interest. Because 75% of the material is common to all students at each grade level, mobility is less of a factor.
Problem: In the 1980's, we were indoctrinated in Assertive Discipline. We have become comfortable with that system and find that it works well. Why should we change to the Glasser model? How will we learn about the new model?
Resolution: In the next three years, a majority of the teachers in our district will not have been with us in the 1980's when large amounts of time and money were spent on staff development on the AD model. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the district to provide staff development on classroom management. This will take place during school with subs or after school at the curriculum rate. Each teacher will choose the time.
The switch will not be made district wide until pilot schools have shown that the model is effective in our schools. The pilot teachers would meet several times to discuss the new model and determine if they will recommend the change.
The district would provide research that supports the Glasser model and encourage study groups at each school to study the reasons for change.
Problem: According to Tom Anderson at the University of Illinois-Urbana Champaign, class meetings should take place for elementary students once per day and high school students two to three times per week and be up to 45 minutes in length. The amount of time for class meetings will cut into our instructional time.
Solution: Time is a precious commodity. Note that it says up to 45 minutes in length. Most meetings will be shorter than that. At the middle schools, teachers can use the teaming ideas from Project LINCOL'N training to incorporate the team meetings. Because the student's are all on a team, they can use team time to have meetings. Length of meetings and time on task will be monitored by teachers to determine the appropriate amount of time to devote to class meetings each week.
Problem: Our school has been trained in site based decision making. Will we have the chance to decide what model, or combination of models, would work best for our school?
Resolution: Yes, site-based schools may make their own decision, provide that the decision is based on research and the team reaches consensus. If a different model will be used in those schools, it will be the responsibility of the school to provide training in that model.
References:
Book:
Charles, C.M. Building Classroom Discipline.
Websites:
Allen, Thomas H. Developing a Discipline Plan for You.
Anderson, Tom. Power Point presentation. Some Impressions of Glasser's Work.
Assignment 15 Lesson 13 q3
Accept Responsibility
One of the features of Glasser’s strategy is: ...getting the student to accept responsibility... What does that mean and where does it fit in with his larger scheme?
According to dictionary.com, responsibility can be defined as
|
1: the social force that binds you to your obligations and the courses of action demanded by that force: "we must instill a sense of duty in our children"; "every right implies a responsibility; every opportunity, an obligation; every possession, a duty"- John D. Rockefeller Jr. 2: the proper sphere or extent of your activities; "it was his province to take care of himself" 3: ability or necessity to answer for or be responsible for one's conduct; "he holds a position of great responsibility" |
With regards to students in the classroom, getting them to accept responsibility means that students will be held accountable, and it won't all come from the teacher. There has to be a shift from the teacher being the boss to the teacher being the lead. They need to help students learn by organizing interesting activities and providing assistance to students. (Charles, 189) In addition, this means that teachers shouldn't allow students shouldn't make excuses for themselves, rather they should be expected to put forth their best effort and own up to their mistakes.
In Glasser's model, the teacher should provide a classroom environment and curriculum that meets students' basic needs for belonging, power, fun, and freedom, as a means of motivating students and reducing behavior problems. (Calmut) If needs are met, students will show little misbehavior. (Charles, 180). He established the concept of classroom meetings, in which the teacher and students jointly discuss, and find solutions to, problems of behavior and other class matters. (Charles, 181) By the teacher sharing the responsibility for solving all of the behavior problems and other class issues, they allow the students greater by in.
Prior to 1985, Glasser depicted school in a positive light. He believed that schools should stress student responsibility in making appropriate choices, showing that students must live with their choices. (Charles, 184) He has since modified his stance. He still believes that students should be responsible, but thinks that schools need to do their part also. Both schools and students need to be responsible for high standards of achievement. It is of utmost importance that teachers strive for quality teaching. To move toward quality teaching, teachers must make every effort to:
In short, we all need to be responsible for learning. It is not the job of the student or school alone. If we all work together, education can benefit all involved.
References:
Books:
Bruning, Roger, Gregory Schraw and Royce Ronning. Cognitive Psychology and Instruction.
Charles, C.M. Building Classroom Discipline.
Websites:
Chapter Management and Discipline.
Assignment 16 Lesson 14 q3
Gang scene
Locate information on the internet and from
your school district that describes the gang scene in your school, school
district, community or city. Determine the names, symbols, garments, gang
structure, effect on your school, and/or effect on you. How do you plan to
interact with gang 'wannabees' or members in your school, classroom
or laboratory?
Springfield Public Schools have a student population of roughly 15,000 students, about 8000 being in middle and high school. According to an article by Jim Barlow, it reports that a recent school-district survey estimated that there are about 800 gang members in the Springfield schools. This number seems too large to be true, but reality says it could be correct. According to Bodinger-deUriarte, the number of people that join gangs has rarely exceeded 10% even in highly impacted areas, such as urban centers. The gangs in our small urban area are outgrowths of the Chicago gang scene.
While teaching seventh grade at Grant Middle School, I attended several in-services provided by the Student Assistance Program to learn about gangs and their activities. We discussed the ways students display gang affiliation, such as raising one pant leg and wearing particular colors. This was highlighted so it would be noticed by the teacher so they could be sent to the principal, guidance dean or SAP leader. Our building also kept current about the gang scene in Springfield by keeping in contact with the police and other community organizations. By arming ourselves with information we felt like we After attending the in-service I was very aware of what the students were wearing. Several of my students tried to portray themselves as gang members even if they weren't really a part of a gang. When I saw that my students were trying to imitate the behavior of gang members, I tried to talk to them about it. Most said they were just imitating their older friends. I don't believe any of them were in gangs when they were in my class, but suspect that several have become members since.
Students join gangs in order to feel a sense of belonging. Glasser would argue that if schools met all the needs of students there wouldn't be a need for gangs. In addition to a sense of belonging, many students join gangs for protection. That is the case in many areas of Springfield. Many of those members don't feel safe in their own neighborhoods and feel the need to join a gang to keep safe.
Gang members wear specific apparel to show gang affiliation or
"colors". They dress in a basic style or color chosen by gang leaders.
In an attempt to limit the infiltration of gangs in the school
environment, in 1997 the Springfield School Board adopted a dress code that
includes prohibiting students from wearing gang related clothing or otherwise
openly displaying gang symbols. However, as pressure from police and school
officials increases, gang members may change their appearance to become less
noticeable. Today, many members wear professional sports team jackets, caps and
shirts, so identifying them is more difficult. Law enforcement officials now
depend on other criteria and intelligence rather than clothing to identify gang
members. In other words, don't let appearances fool you, clothes don't
necessarily identify who is in a gang and who isn't. (Gang
Awareness Page)
According to the National Center for Educational Statistics, minority students living in urban areas are not the only ones who attend schools with gang members. Similar numbers of white students and minority students report gangs in their schools. Also, similar numbers of students living in suburban neighborhoods and students living in urban neighborhoods report gangs in their schools. Not surprisingly, gang presence in schools is strongly associated with increased student reports of victimization and fear. (NCES) Because of a court ordered desegregation order, all of our schools in Springfield are mixed. This means that gangs could be anywhere.
The Springfield School District believes that all students to the right to:
protection from physical or verbal abuse.
a school climate free of violence and disruption.
To meet this end, a district wide discipline handbook is followed in all cases for certain offenses. Springfield has four levels of misconduct. Level I acts are misbehaviors which impede the orderly operation of the classroom, school and/or bus. Level II involves misbehaviors whose frequency or seriousness tend to disrupt the learning climate of the school. It includes displaying gang membership or affiliation. Disciplinary options range from conferences to in-house suspension. Level III acts involve acts directed against persons or property whose consequences may seriously endanger the health and safety of others in the school. Participating in gang activities and gang/group intimidation fall into this category. These acts are punishable by suspension, both in and out house, and alternative programs. The final category, Level IV, involves actions which are so serious that they always require at least temporary removal of the student from the school. Anyone participating in gang/group violence will be assigned to ten days out-of-school suspension, referral to law enforcement authorities, and also will result in automatic referral to the District Student Review Committee which could result in additional disciplinary action. (Informational and Discipline Handbook)
References:
Books:
Charles, C.M. Building Classroom Discipline.
Springfield Public Schools. Informational and Discipline Handbook.
Experiences:
Grant Middle School, SAP trainings, 1996-1999.
Websites:
Barlow, Jim. Partnership Illinois: Former Gang Member Works With Violence-prevention Program in Springfield.
Burnett, Gary. Gangs in Schools.
Memphis Organized Crime Unit. Gang Awareness Page.
National Center for Educational Statistics. Gangs and Victimization at School.
Assignment 17 Lesson 14 q6
Mediation Process
Research and describe the mediation process. Use my paper, and information from other websites as a starting point. Write about the following issues and others of your choice: Are mediation and negotiation skills important life skills, or are they just reasonable ways to talk about a conflict?, or are they, perhaps, something else to you? Do they have any political, spiritual and/or philosophical overtones?, describe them. Should all students and faculty be required to master them? If so, how should they master them?
The mediation program is a conflict resolution education program in which selected individuals are trained in the principles and foundation abilities of conflict resolution and in the mediation process in order to provide neutral third-party facilitation to assist those in conflict to reach a resolution. (Mediation Program Approach) Mediation is the process by which a third party helps disputants negotiate a mutually acceptable settlement of their dispute. (Maxwell)
Mediation is a process that mediators facilitate rather than force upon the disputants. A mediator is not a judge, makes few if any decisions, and offers few if any opinions. In mediation, the disputants own the problem and are totally responsible for developing solutions to the problem. A skilled mediator will help disputants to see their problem fully and to see their way to a mutually satisfactory solution. (Curwen)
The mediator would take the following steps when using the mediation process:
Introduction
Have participants introduce themselves.
Explain the mediator's role.
Explain the ground rules.
Explain steps of mediation.
Ask for any questions before you begin.
Telling the Story/Problem Identification
Both parties tell their side of the story to the mediator.
Summarize both parties' side of the story.
Make sure you understand the conflict.
Make sure the parties understand the conflict.
Identifying Facts and Feelings
Parties tell their side of the story to each other.
Bring out facts and feelings of what the parties say.
Have parties change roles.
Summarize the facts and feelings of both sides.
Generating Options/Alternatives, Negotiating and Evaluating Alternatives
Ask both parties how they can solve the problem.
Write down all solutions.
Check off only the solution(s) that both parties can agree to.
Establishing a Settlement and Writing a Plan
Use only the solutions that both parties agree to.
Write the contract up in parties' own words.
Everybody signs it. (Combination of Maxwell and Trevaskis)
I believe that mediation and negotiation skills are essential in today's
society. Conflict is natural and occurs regularly in everyone's life. Conflict
in and of itself, is not necessarily good or bad. It’s the way that conflict
is handled that makes the outcome positive or negative. If handled effectively,
conflict can create a good learning experience. If handled ineffectively,
conflict can quickly escalate to physical and emotional violence. (Ohio
Commission) Everyone should learn how to deal with conflicts so the outcome is
positive.
Just think about what kind of place the world would be if our leaders didn't possess negotiation and mediation skills. Almost every week in the news there are some kind of talks going on trying to establish peace. These peace talks are essentially the mediation process. Unfortunately they frequently stall in the stage of finding solutions that both parties can agree to.
All teachers and students should use the mediation
process to help violence go down in their schools. This should start at the
early elementary level so students feel comfortable using this process when the
stakes get higher. Initial training should take place over the course of a year
and then follow up training should occur to refresh the memories of students and
teachers. The best way to learn is to actively participate in the process.
Therefore, I think that all students need to participate in the process. While I
feel these skills are necessary, I don't believe that students should be
formally assessed on them. Students may be able to recall the 'how' and the
'why' of the mediation practice, but still not be able to put it into action. Mastery
will come with practice and use. Teachers should encourage the use of
self-evaluation by the students in this process.
References:
Book:
Charles, C.M. Building Classroom Discipline.
Websites:
Anderson, Tom. A Treatise On Conflict In The Classroom.
Curwen, Jon et al. Peer Mediation Program. Beginner's Guide to Mediation, "The Process"
Hawley, Chandra. Teacher Talk. Peer Mediation.
Information About The Ohio Commission on Dispute Resolution and Conflict Management
Maxwell, Jennifer. Dispute Mediation: A Training Manual.
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Conflict Resolution Education: A Guide to Implementing Programs in Schools, Youth-Serving Organizations, and Community and Juvenile Justice Settings. Chapter 3: Mediation Program Approach. October 1996.
Trevaskis, David Keller. Mediation in the Schools.
Master List of References
Personal experiences:
Discussion with family members about events, 1992, 2001
Grant Middle School, 1996-1999. Seventh grade teaching experiences.
Grant Middle School, SAP trainings, 1996-1999.
Iles Elementary School, 1999-2000. Fifth grade teaching experiences.
Stacey Paul's birthday party. October 1983.
Study Land, 1986-1987.
Team meetings, Grant Middle School, 1996.
Texas Christian University. Teaching Reading class taught by Robert Cooter and Sutton Flynt. June 1995, London.
Tennis lessons, Homestead Country Club. 1984-1992.
Websites:
Learch, Donna. EdPsy 399 May 2000 Commentary
Mastropieri, Margo A. and Thomas E. Scruggs. Enhancing School Success with Mnemonic Strategies.
Max, Gertie. The Gertie Max Study Systemizer.
Maxwell, Jennifer. Dispute Mediation: A Training Manual.
Memphis Organized Crime Unit. Gang Awareness Page.
Mirick, Susie. College of William & Mary
Mount Saint Vincent University. Literacy, Curriculum & Technology.
National Center for Educational Statistics. Gangs and Victimization at School.
The National PTA. Corporal Punishment - Myths and Realities(1991)
Books:
Website: http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/edps530/Chapter%2010.htm
Website: http://home.twcny.rr.com/hiemstra/tlchap8.html